Making transparent soap
Small dosage
Materials:
1. Na Sitrat
2. Sitrat Acid
3. sugar
These materials use for making syrup concentrate with adding hot water. This, influent transparent mode in soap
4. vegetative oil
5. Stearic Acid
Boil these materials till resulting white crystal and soluble. Add BHT (Butyl Hydroxide Toluene)
6. Natrium hydroxide adding water(dissolving)
7. Perfume
8. PG (Propylene Glycol ) 57 gram as moisturizer
9. Syrup concentrate from materials number 1 to 3, 125 ml
10. Glycerin 15 gram as moisturizer
The step for working
1. Mix the resulting materials number 4 & 5 with caustic soda (saponification). This can running within mixing continually in high temperature. Adding PG.forming glycerol and sticky mix and then be liquid temporally
2. Use syrup concentrate and glycerin. Thus forming likewise seaweed.
3. To make sure that our practice is done and be good, take a sample (a spoon of result/mixing) to somethin’ place, thus, wait for a moment till seem sold transparent soap.
4. Filter the waste from mix
5. If the transparency is thinking lower, add PG.
6. Add perfume
iki maonah......sorry nek ukurane salok ra tak kek i.....q gag berani....kamu intuisi trial n error aja dulu......okay
Jumat, 23 April 2010
Making transparent soap
Small dosage
Materials:
1. Na Sitrat
2. Sitrat Acid
3. sugar
These materials use for making syrup concentrate with adding hot water. This, influent transparent mode in soap
4. vegetative oil
5. Stearic Acid
Boil these materials till resulting white crystal and soluble. Add BHT (Butyl Hydroxide Toluene)
6. Natrium hydroxide adding water(dissolving)
7. Perfume
8. PG (Propylene Glycol ) 57 gram as moisturizer
9. Syrup concentrate from materials number 1 to 3, 125 ml
10. Glycerin 15 gram as moisturizer
The step for working
1. Mix the resulting materials number 4 & 5 with caustic soda (saponification). This can running within mixing continually in high temperature. Adding PG.forming glycerol and sticky mix and then be liquid temporally
2. Use syrup concentrate and glycerin. Thus forming likewise seaweed.
3. To make sure that our practice is done and be good, take a sample (a spoon of result/mixing) to somethin’ place, thus, wait for a moment till seem sold transparent soap.
4. Filter the waste from mix
5. If the transparency is thinking lower, add PG.
6. Add perfume
iki maonah......sorry nek ukurane salok ra tak kek i.....q gag berani....kamu intuisi trial n error aja dulu......okay
Small dosage
Materials:
1. Na Sitrat
2. Sitrat Acid
3. sugar
These materials use for making syrup concentrate with adding hot water. This, influent transparent mode in soap
4. vegetative oil
5. Stearic Acid
Boil these materials till resulting white crystal and soluble. Add BHT (Butyl Hydroxide Toluene)
6. Natrium hydroxide adding water(dissolving)
7. Perfume
8. PG (Propylene Glycol ) 57 gram as moisturizer
9. Syrup concentrate from materials number 1 to 3, 125 ml
10. Glycerin 15 gram as moisturizer
The step for working
1. Mix the resulting materials number 4 & 5 with caustic soda (saponification). This can running within mixing continually in high temperature. Adding PG.forming glycerol and sticky mix and then be liquid temporally
2. Use syrup concentrate and glycerin. Thus forming likewise seaweed.
3. To make sure that our practice is done and be good, take a sample (a spoon of result/mixing) to somethin’ place, thus, wait for a moment till seem sold transparent soap.
4. Filter the waste from mix
5. If the transparency is thinking lower, add PG.
6. Add perfume
iki maonah......sorry nek ukurane salok ra tak kek i.....q gag berani....kamu intuisi trial n error aja dulu......okay
Sabtu, 13 Maret 2010
Sentence Diagrams
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
Sentences by Contemporary Journalists
As a teacher of foreign languages, I am disturbed by the inability of many, if not most, of my first-year students to deal effectively with even the most basic elements of grammar. Whereas in a bygone era students learned the parts of speech and their respective functions (and demonstrated this knowledge by diagramming sentences), today's students enter high school unsure of the difference between nouns and verbs, and totally befuddled if asked to identify gerunds and participles, direct object objects and predicate nominatives.
Perhaps you are one of these students. If so, welcome to my web site, which I hope will familiarize you with as much grammar as you will need to know. Don't be alarmed by the elaborate diagrams; in mini-lessons following each diagram, you will be introduced to one or two new grammar concepts at a time. You can overlook the rest until you are ready for it.
If you already have a solid foundation in grammar, you will perhaps enjoy creating your own diagrams before looking at mine. Please check the Apologia pro descriptione mea (defense of my diagram) accompanying each diagram. If we disagree and you think you're right, please let me know. I'll be happy to write back.
Sentence 1
The federal government and many of the nation's leading telephone companies yesterday announced an agreement for a reshuffling of phone rates that would reduce the bills of tens of millions of less affluent consumers and lead to less significant cuts for other consumers and businesses.
- Stephen Labaton, The New York Times (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 2
Reports about medicines in newspapers and on television commonly contain little or no information about drugs' risks and cost, and often cite medical "experts" without disclosing their financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry, according to a new study.
- Susan Okie, The Washington Post (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 3
Unhappy bus and truck drivers argued yesterday that proposed limits on the time they can drive will cost the economy millions of dollars and make the roads less safe.
- Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 4
Gov. George W. Bush, who recently advocated DNA testing to "erase any doubts" from some death penalty cases, said yesterday he would probably delay the looming execution of a convicted killer whose attorneys are fighting for new DNA tests.
- Mark Babineck, Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A4)
Sentence 5
There is little evidence yet of the "new approach" that Bobby Knight promised in return for one last chance to behave suitably as men's basketball coach at Indiana University.
- Louisville, KY, The Courier-Journal, June 1, 2000, editorial page
Sentence 6
Peterson's, publisher of a guide to four-year colleges, said yesterday that from now on it will disclose to readers that schools pay for extra information about themselves in the book.
- Arlene Levinson, Associated Press (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 7
Using a new kind of stroke rehabilitation therapy, scientists have shown for the first time that the brain can be coaxed into reorganizing its circuitry so that people regain nearly full use of partially paralyzed limbs, even if the stroke happened years ago.
- From New York Times and AP Dispatches (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A8)
Sentence 8
Side air bags--the latest in high-tech auto safety devices--are providing effective protection in actual crashes while largely avoiding inadvertent injuries to passengers, an industry technical group reported yesterday.
- R. Alonzo-Zaldivar, Los Angeles Times (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 9
TV networks are a lot like pesky phone solicitors, the people who call you as you are about to dig into a bowl of spaghetti and try to sell you Venetian blinds you don't want or some kind of helmet your gutters don't need.
- Thomas Nord (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page D1)
Sentence 10
After punishing basketball coach Bobby Knight last month for misbehavior--but not firing him--Indiana University is still wrestling with its feelings about whether it did enough over the years to prevent Knight's heated confrontations with players, referees and others.
- The Courier-Journal, June 4, 2000, page A1
Sentence 11
It's hard for many people to balance work and family, but entrepreneurs running a company out of their homes learn quickly that it can be impossible to separate the two.
- Joyce M. Rosenberg, Associated Press (published on June 5, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page C1)
Sentence 12
The advocacy group Human Rights Watch claims the nation's war on drugs unfairly targets African Americans, who are far more likely to be imprisoned for drug offenses than whites even though far more whites use illegal drugs than blacks.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 13
The group's report, to be released today, said that blacks accounted for 62 percent of the drug offenders sent to state prisons nationwide in 1996, the most recent year for which statistics are available, although they represent just 12 percent of the U.S. population.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 14
The new investigation found no credible evidence to support allegations in recent years from former Memphis bar owner Loyd Jowers and former FBI agent Donald Wilson, and earlier from Ray himself, that a mysterious "Raoul" or others, including federal agents, police or black ministers, participated in a plot to kill King.
- Michael J. Sniffen, Associated Press (published on June 10, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 15
It is a rare testimonial to the transplant system, which for the last several years has been rocked by bitter charges of unfairness, seen nasty internal fighting explode into embarrassing public view, warred over government attempts to step in and solve the controversy, and suffered under the historic shortage of donor organs.
- Elizabeth Neus, Gannett News Service (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A18)
Sentence 16
President Clinton opened the door yesterday for states to provide unemployment pay to workers who take unpaid time off to care for a newborn child or sick relative, expanding an already popular Family Leave Act.
- Associated Press (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 17
In response to such complaints, the Regional Airport Authority has announced it will seek $215 million to cut in half the time needed to move about 1,000 families whose neighborhoods have been identified as most adversely affected by airport noise.
- Butch John (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 18
Key segments of the nation's news audience, particularly younger and better-educated Americans, and those seeking financial information, are turning increasingly to the Internet, says a new poll on media trends.
Will Lester, Associated Press (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 19
Keeping your lips zipped when things sour is the best piece of blunt marriage advice the couple will offer in their sold-out appearances at the Louisville Public Library tonight and on public radio station WFPL tomorrow morning.
- Tom Dorsey, TV and Radio Critic (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page F1)
Sentence 20
His comments came after Jefferson County Judge-Executive Rebecca Jackson and all three county commissioners sent a hand-delivered letter directing him not to "issue any statements of commitment, or send a memorandum of understanding at this time on behalf of the county" to the Rockets about plans for an arena.
- Sheldon S. Schafer and Chris Poynter (published on June 13, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
Sentences by Contemporary Journalists
As a teacher of foreign languages, I am disturbed by the inability of many, if not most, of my first-year students to deal effectively with even the most basic elements of grammar. Whereas in a bygone era students learned the parts of speech and their respective functions (and demonstrated this knowledge by diagramming sentences), today's students enter high school unsure of the difference between nouns and verbs, and totally befuddled if asked to identify gerunds and participles, direct object objects and predicate nominatives.
Perhaps you are one of these students. If so, welcome to my web site, which I hope will familiarize you with as much grammar as you will need to know. Don't be alarmed by the elaborate diagrams; in mini-lessons following each diagram, you will be introduced to one or two new grammar concepts at a time. You can overlook the rest until you are ready for it.
If you already have a solid foundation in grammar, you will perhaps enjoy creating your own diagrams before looking at mine. Please check the Apologia pro descriptione mea (defense of my diagram) accompanying each diagram. If we disagree and you think you're right, please let me know. I'll be happy to write back.
Sentence 1
The federal government and many of the nation's leading telephone companies yesterday announced an agreement for a reshuffling of phone rates that would reduce the bills of tens of millions of less affluent consumers and lead to less significant cuts for other consumers and businesses.
- Stephen Labaton, The New York Times (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 2
Reports about medicines in newspapers and on television commonly contain little or no information about drugs' risks and cost, and often cite medical "experts" without disclosing their financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry, according to a new study.
- Susan Okie, The Washington Post (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 3
Unhappy bus and truck drivers argued yesterday that proposed limits on the time they can drive will cost the economy millions of dollars and make the roads less safe.
- Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 4
Gov. George W. Bush, who recently advocated DNA testing to "erase any doubts" from some death penalty cases, said yesterday he would probably delay the looming execution of a convicted killer whose attorneys are fighting for new DNA tests.
- Mark Babineck, Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A4)
Sentence 5
There is little evidence yet of the "new approach" that Bobby Knight promised in return for one last chance to behave suitably as men's basketball coach at Indiana University.
- Louisville, KY, The Courier-Journal, June 1, 2000, editorial page
Sentence 6
Peterson's, publisher of a guide to four-year colleges, said yesterday that from now on it will disclose to readers that schools pay for extra information about themselves in the book.
- Arlene Levinson, Associated Press (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 7
Using a new kind of stroke rehabilitation therapy, scientists have shown for the first time that the brain can be coaxed into reorganizing its circuitry so that people regain nearly full use of partially paralyzed limbs, even if the stroke happened years ago.
- From New York Times and AP Dispatches (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A8)
Sentence 8
Side air bags--the latest in high-tech auto safety devices--are providing effective protection in actual crashes while largely avoiding inadvertent injuries to passengers, an industry technical group reported yesterday.
- R. Alonzo-Zaldivar, Los Angeles Times (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 9
TV networks are a lot like pesky phone solicitors, the people who call you as you are about to dig into a bowl of spaghetti and try to sell you Venetian blinds you don't want or some kind of helmet your gutters don't need.
- Thomas Nord (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page D1)
Sentence 10
After punishing basketball coach Bobby Knight last month for misbehavior--but not firing him--Indiana University is still wrestling with its feelings about whether it did enough over the years to prevent Knight's heated confrontations with players, referees and others.
- The Courier-Journal, June 4, 2000, page A1
Sentence 11
It's hard for many people to balance work and family, but entrepreneurs running a company out of their homes learn quickly that it can be impossible to separate the two.
- Joyce M. Rosenberg, Associated Press (published on June 5, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page C1)
Sentence 12
The advocacy group Human Rights Watch claims the nation's war on drugs unfairly targets African Americans, who are far more likely to be imprisoned for drug offenses than whites even though far more whites use illegal drugs than blacks.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 13
The group's report, to be released today, said that blacks accounted for 62 percent of the drug offenders sent to state prisons nationwide in 1996, the most recent year for which statistics are available, although they represent just 12 percent of the U.S. population.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 14
The new investigation found no credible evidence to support allegations in recent years from former Memphis bar owner Loyd Jowers and former FBI agent Donald Wilson, and earlier from Ray himself, that a mysterious "Raoul" or others, including federal agents, police or black ministers, participated in a plot to kill King.
- Michael J. Sniffen, Associated Press (published on June 10, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 15
It is a rare testimonial to the transplant system, which for the last several years has been rocked by bitter charges of unfairness, seen nasty internal fighting explode into embarrassing public view, warred over government attempts to step in and solve the controversy, and suffered under the historic shortage of donor organs.
- Elizabeth Neus, Gannett News Service (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A18)
Sentence 16
President Clinton opened the door yesterday for states to provide unemployment pay to workers who take unpaid time off to care for a newborn child or sick relative, expanding an already popular Family Leave Act.
- Associated Press (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 17
In response to such complaints, the Regional Airport Authority has announced it will seek $215 million to cut in half the time needed to move about 1,000 families whose neighborhoods have been identified as most adversely affected by airport noise.
- Butch John (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 18
Key segments of the nation's news audience, particularly younger and better-educated Americans, and those seeking financial information, are turning increasingly to the Internet, says a new poll on media trends.
Will Lester, Associated Press (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 19
Keeping your lips zipped when things sour is the best piece of blunt marriage advice the couple will offer in their sold-out appearances at the Louisville Public Library tonight and on public radio station WFPL tomorrow morning.
- Tom Dorsey, TV and Radio Critic (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page F1)
Sentence 20
His comments came after Jefferson County Judge-Executive Rebecca Jackson and all three county commissioners sent a hand-delivered letter directing him not to "issue any statements of commitment, or send a memorandum of understanding at this time on behalf of the county" to the Rockets about plans for an arena.
- Sheldon S. Schafer and Chris Poynter (published on June 13, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence Diagrams
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
The Anatomy of a Sentence
Can you diagram this 100-word sentence?
Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram’s, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
If you take it step by step, it's not so hard.
When you're ready to see the diagrams, click below.
Part 1: you walk, but you concentrate
Part 2: you walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 3: you, a Christmas procrastinator, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 4: you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 5: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom .
Part 6: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 7: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 8: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 9: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 10: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 11: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 12: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 13: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 14: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle.
Part 15: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
Check out my new book, Analyzing the Grammar of Literature: Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers! See the description below.
*** A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming is now in its second edition. Its 114 pages contain the definitions of 97 grammatical terms, a page of diagramming symbols, 105 diagramming examples ranging in difficulty from very easy to very difficult, 30 exercises containing 274 sentences to be diagrammed, a separate answer section with a diagram and a verbal analysis of each sentence, and a concluding section of 30 sentences of medium length (with solutions), intended as a review of most of the diagramming concepts presented in the book.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the second edition is $14 (including book-rate shipment within the United States), slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
At long last, you may purchase student copies of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. The student copy contains all the material of the regular edition with the exception of the answers (diagramming solutions and explanations) to the exercises. Additional space has been provided so that students who write small and work carefully will be able to construct most of their diagrams in their books. The price of a student copy is $12.50 ($11.50 when more than one book is ordered).
* * * * *
For Young Learners
*** A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A First Book of Sentence Diagramming is a diagramming workbook for elementary and middle-school students. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 115 model diagrams and 250 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 250 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 120 pages and costs $15 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-120 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
*** A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming is intended for middle-school and high-school students. This book begins where A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ends and has the same basic structure. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 82 model diagrams and 201 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 201 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 133 pages and costs $16 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-133 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
Now in its second edition!
***Diagramming Step by Step***
~ One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence ~
Diagramming Step by Step: One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence, my fourth book of sentence diagramming, is similar to the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming; however, there are several important differences:
1 - The examples and exercises of Diagramming Step by Step are completely new.
2 - The teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has 158 pages, 44 more than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. Student copies are also available. They do not have answers in the back; in every other respect, they are the same as the teacher's edition.
3 - Diagramming Step by Step has 40 more diagramming examples than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming.
4 - Diagramming Step by Step has 83 more sentences for students to diagram; moreover, ten of these sentences have more than 100 words each. A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming has no sentences of this length. Click here to see one of these 100-word sentences.
5 - The instructional section of the book is divided into 24 lessons, each with a page of grammar explanation, a page of model diagrams, and a page of sentences to be diagrammed by the student. Click here to see an entire lesson (three pages). I regret the poor quality of some images.
6 - In a section entitled "People in the Park," a storyteller (that's me) tells stories about the lives of people in the park, and the student is expected to diagram the sentences of these stories. Grammar hints are provided for those who need them. Click here to see one of the stories.
Click here to see the table of contents.
Like the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming, the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has, in the back, "answers" (diagrams and explanations) for every sentence in every exercise, including "People in the Park" and "100-word Sentences."
Should you buy this book if you already have A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Not necessarily, but if you are looking for additional diagramming challenges for yourself or your students, you will find plenty in this book.
Should you buy this book instead of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Again, not necessarily. This book may have more material than you need.
Diagramming Step by Step is also available in an enlarged edition. It features 24 additional pages, each entitled "Writing Correctly." These pages offer students writing tips related to the topics of the corresponding 24 lessons. Click here to view two of these pages.
I have dedicated this book to my recently deceased wife of 41 years, Joni. For that reason, I have tried to make it my best diagramming book. If I ever seek a publisher for one of my books, this will be the one. Click here to view pictures of Joni and to read about her life and death.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step is $18. A student copy sells for $12.50. The enlarged edition (the teacher's edition with 24 pages of writing tips--182 pages in all) sells for $20. The prices, which include handling and media-mail shipment within the United States, are slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
New in 2009!
*** Analyzing the Grammar of Literature ***
Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers
This, my fifth book of sentence diagramming, is unlike any of the other four and, to the best of my knowledge, unlike any other book available. It is not for beginners. It offers 130 sentences gleaned from the works of 57 British and American writers. The shortest sentence in the collection has 70 words, the longest 472. The median length (the length of the sentence right in the middle) is 100 words; to be precise, Sentence 65 has 99 words, Sentence 66 has 100.
Diagrams of all 130 sentences are contained in in the "back" of the book, i.e., in the final five-sixths of the book. Each diagram occupies at least one page of the book; the longest covers four pages.
Degree of syntactic difficulty played no role in the selection of sentences. Sentence length and author’s literary reputation were the major criteria
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
The Anatomy of a Sentence
Can you diagram this 100-word sentence?
Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram’s, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
If you take it step by step, it's not so hard.
When you're ready to see the diagrams, click below.
Part 1: you walk, but you concentrate
Part 2: you walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 3: you, a Christmas procrastinator, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 4: you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 5: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom .
Part 6: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 7: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 8: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 9: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 10: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 11: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 12: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 13: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 14: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle.
Part 15: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
Check out my new book, Analyzing the Grammar of Literature: Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers! See the description below.
*** A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming is now in its second edition. Its 114 pages contain the definitions of 97 grammatical terms, a page of diagramming symbols, 105 diagramming examples ranging in difficulty from very easy to very difficult, 30 exercises containing 274 sentences to be diagrammed, a separate answer section with a diagram and a verbal analysis of each sentence, and a concluding section of 30 sentences of medium length (with solutions), intended as a review of most of the diagramming concepts presented in the book.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the second edition is $14 (including book-rate shipment within the United States), slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
At long last, you may purchase student copies of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. The student copy contains all the material of the regular edition with the exception of the answers (diagramming solutions and explanations) to the exercises. Additional space has been provided so that students who write small and work carefully will be able to construct most of their diagrams in their books. The price of a student copy is $12.50 ($11.50 when more than one book is ordered).
* * * * *
For Young Learners
*** A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A First Book of Sentence Diagramming is a diagramming workbook for elementary and middle-school students. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 115 model diagrams and 250 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 250 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 120 pages and costs $15 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-120 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
*** A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming is intended for middle-school and high-school students. This book begins where A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ends and has the same basic structure. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 82 model diagrams and 201 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 201 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 133 pages and costs $16 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-133 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
Now in its second edition!
***Diagramming Step by Step***
~ One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence ~
Diagramming Step by Step: One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence, my fourth book of sentence diagramming, is similar to the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming; however, there are several important differences:
1 - The examples and exercises of Diagramming Step by Step are completely new.
2 - The teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has 158 pages, 44 more than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. Student copies are also available. They do not have answers in the back; in every other respect, they are the same as the teacher's edition.
3 - Diagramming Step by Step has 40 more diagramming examples than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming.
4 - Diagramming Step by Step has 83 more sentences for students to diagram; moreover, ten of these sentences have more than 100 words each. A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming has no sentences of this length. Click here to see one of these 100-word sentences.
5 - The instructional section of the book is divided into 24 lessons, each with a page of grammar explanation, a page of model diagrams, and a page of sentences to be diagrammed by the student. Click here to see an entire lesson (three pages). I regret the poor quality of some images.
6 - In a section entitled "People in the Park," a storyteller (that's me) tells stories about the lives of people in the park, and the student is expected to diagram the sentences of these stories. Grammar hints are provided for those who need them. Click here to see one of the stories.
Click here to see the table of contents.
Like the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming, the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has, in the back, "answers" (diagrams and explanations) for every sentence in every exercise, including "People in the Park" and "100-word Sentences."
Should you buy this book if you already have A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Not necessarily, but if you are looking for additional diagramming challenges for yourself or your students, you will find plenty in this book.
Should you buy this book instead of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Again, not necessarily. This book may have more material than you need.
Diagramming Step by Step is also available in an enlarged edition. It features 24 additional pages, each entitled "Writing Correctly." These pages offer students writing tips related to the topics of the corresponding 24 lessons. Click here to view two of these pages.
I have dedicated this book to my recently deceased wife of 41 years, Joni. For that reason, I have tried to make it my best diagramming book. If I ever seek a publisher for one of my books, this will be the one. Click here to view pictures of Joni and to read about her life and death.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step is $18. A student copy sells for $12.50. The enlarged edition (the teacher's edition with 24 pages of writing tips--182 pages in all) sells for $20. The prices, which include handling and media-mail shipment within the United States, are slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
New in 2009!
*** Analyzing the Grammar of Literature ***
Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers
This, my fifth book of sentence diagramming, is unlike any of the other four and, to the best of my knowledge, unlike any other book available. It is not for beginners. It offers 130 sentences gleaned from the works of 57 British and American writers. The shortest sentence in the collection has 70 words, the longest 472. The median length (the length of the sentence right in the middle) is 100 words; to be precise, Sentence 65 has 99 words, Sentence 66 has 100.
Diagrams of all 130 sentences are contained in in the "back" of the book, i.e., in the final five-sixths of the book. Each diagram occupies at least one page of the book; the longest covers four pages.
Degree of syntactic difficulty played no role in the selection of sentences. Sentence length and author’s literary reputation were the major criteria
Pressure-swing distillation
Further information: Pressure-Swing Distillation (section on the main Azeotrope page)
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2009)
Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed.[clarification needed]
This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist[citation needed] to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed. This is particularly important in commercial applications.
Pressure-swing distillation is employed during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.
[edit] Industrial distillation
Typical industrial distillation towers
Main article: Continuous distillation
Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
Industrial distillation[27][33] is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower
Large-scale industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required.
Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.
Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps
Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method[27][34] or the Fenske equation[27] can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor-liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor-liquid equilibrium stages.
In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum.
Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column[35]
This packing material can either be random dumped packing (1-3" wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent of a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.[36][37] Considerable work as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).[38]
Further information: Pressure-Swing Distillation (section on the main Azeotrope page)
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2009)
Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed.[clarification needed]
This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist[citation needed] to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed. This is particularly important in commercial applications.
Pressure-swing distillation is employed during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.
[edit] Industrial distillation
Typical industrial distillation towers
Main article: Continuous distillation
Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
Industrial distillation[27][33] is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower
Large-scale industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required.
Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.
Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps
Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method[27][34] or the Fenske equation[27] can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor-liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor-liquid equilibrium stages.
In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum.
Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column[35]
This packing material can either be random dumped packing (1-3" wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent of a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.[36][37] Considerable work as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).[38]
Other types
* The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup.
* Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane.
* Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
* Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.
* Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible.
The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation":
* In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.
* In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
Other uses:
* Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name - wood alcohol.
* Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them.
[edit] Azeotropic distillation
Main article: Azeotropic distillation
Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 °C.
If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding an additional component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a (desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.
Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid-liquid separator ( a decanter ) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up.
High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component.
To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is necessary to increase the composition of the light key in the distillate.
[edit] Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation
The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.
* The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup.
* Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane.
* Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
* Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.
* Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible.
The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation":
* In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.
* In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
Other uses:
* Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name - wood alcohol.
* Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them.
[edit] Azeotropic distillation
Main article: Azeotropic distillation
Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 °C.
If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding an additional component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a (desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.
Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid-liquid separator ( a decanter ) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up.
High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component.
To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is necessary to increase the composition of the light key in the distillate.
[edit] Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation
The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.
Steam distillation
Main article: Steam distillation
Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.[30] This process involves using bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.
Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care.
Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 °C. Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70 °C.
Perkin triangle distillation setup
1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teflon tap 1 6: Cold finger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in 9: Teflon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teflon tap 3 12: Still receiver
[edit] Vacuum distillation
Main article: Vacuum distillation
Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator.
This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure.
Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr.[31] 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a clear line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.
[edit] Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.
[edit] Short path distillation
Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold finger - bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate flask/distillate.
Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.[32] A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which often contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.
Main article: Steam distillation
Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.[30] This process involves using bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.
Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care.
Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 °C. Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70 °C.
Perkin triangle distillation setup
1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teflon tap 1 6: Cold finger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in 9: Teflon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teflon tap 3 12: Still receiver
[edit] Vacuum distillation
Main article: Vacuum distillation
Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator.
This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure.
Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr.[31] 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a clear line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.
[edit] Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.
[edit] Short path distillation
Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold finger - bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate flask/distillate.
Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.[32] A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which often contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.
Langganan:
Komentar (Atom)
