Making transparent soap
Small dosage
Materials:
1. Na Sitrat
2. Sitrat Acid
3. sugar
These materials use for making syrup concentrate with adding hot water. This, influent transparent mode in soap
4. vegetative oil
5. Stearic Acid
Boil these materials till resulting white crystal and soluble. Add BHT (Butyl Hydroxide Toluene)
6. Natrium hydroxide adding water(dissolving)
7. Perfume
8. PG (Propylene Glycol ) 57 gram as moisturizer
9. Syrup concentrate from materials number 1 to 3, 125 ml
10. Glycerin 15 gram as moisturizer
The step for working
1. Mix the resulting materials number 4 & 5 with caustic soda (saponification). This can running within mixing continually in high temperature. Adding PG.forming glycerol and sticky mix and then be liquid temporally
2. Use syrup concentrate and glycerin. Thus forming likewise seaweed.
3. To make sure that our practice is done and be good, take a sample (a spoon of result/mixing) to somethin’ place, thus, wait for a moment till seem sold transparent soap.
4. Filter the waste from mix
5. If the transparency is thinking lower, add PG.
6. Add perfume
iki maonah......sorry nek ukurane salok ra tak kek i.....q gag berani....kamu intuisi trial n error aja dulu......okay
Jumat, 23 April 2010
Making transparent soap
Small dosage
Materials:
1. Na Sitrat
2. Sitrat Acid
3. sugar
These materials use for making syrup concentrate with adding hot water. This, influent transparent mode in soap
4. vegetative oil
5. Stearic Acid
Boil these materials till resulting white crystal and soluble. Add BHT (Butyl Hydroxide Toluene)
6. Natrium hydroxide adding water(dissolving)
7. Perfume
8. PG (Propylene Glycol ) 57 gram as moisturizer
9. Syrup concentrate from materials number 1 to 3, 125 ml
10. Glycerin 15 gram as moisturizer
The step for working
1. Mix the resulting materials number 4 & 5 with caustic soda (saponification). This can running within mixing continually in high temperature. Adding PG.forming glycerol and sticky mix and then be liquid temporally
2. Use syrup concentrate and glycerin. Thus forming likewise seaweed.
3. To make sure that our practice is done and be good, take a sample (a spoon of result/mixing) to somethin’ place, thus, wait for a moment till seem sold transparent soap.
4. Filter the waste from mix
5. If the transparency is thinking lower, add PG.
6. Add perfume
iki maonah......sorry nek ukurane salok ra tak kek i.....q gag berani....kamu intuisi trial n error aja dulu......okay
Small dosage
Materials:
1. Na Sitrat
2. Sitrat Acid
3. sugar
These materials use for making syrup concentrate with adding hot water. This, influent transparent mode in soap
4. vegetative oil
5. Stearic Acid
Boil these materials till resulting white crystal and soluble. Add BHT (Butyl Hydroxide Toluene)
6. Natrium hydroxide adding water(dissolving)
7. Perfume
8. PG (Propylene Glycol ) 57 gram as moisturizer
9. Syrup concentrate from materials number 1 to 3, 125 ml
10. Glycerin 15 gram as moisturizer
The step for working
1. Mix the resulting materials number 4 & 5 with caustic soda (saponification). This can running within mixing continually in high temperature. Adding PG.forming glycerol and sticky mix and then be liquid temporally
2. Use syrup concentrate and glycerin. Thus forming likewise seaweed.
3. To make sure that our practice is done and be good, take a sample (a spoon of result/mixing) to somethin’ place, thus, wait for a moment till seem sold transparent soap.
4. Filter the waste from mix
5. If the transparency is thinking lower, add PG.
6. Add perfume
iki maonah......sorry nek ukurane salok ra tak kek i.....q gag berani....kamu intuisi trial n error aja dulu......okay
Sabtu, 13 Maret 2010
Sentence Diagrams
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
Sentences by Contemporary Journalists
As a teacher of foreign languages, I am disturbed by the inability of many, if not most, of my first-year students to deal effectively with even the most basic elements of grammar. Whereas in a bygone era students learned the parts of speech and their respective functions (and demonstrated this knowledge by diagramming sentences), today's students enter high school unsure of the difference between nouns and verbs, and totally befuddled if asked to identify gerunds and participles, direct object objects and predicate nominatives.
Perhaps you are one of these students. If so, welcome to my web site, which I hope will familiarize you with as much grammar as you will need to know. Don't be alarmed by the elaborate diagrams; in mini-lessons following each diagram, you will be introduced to one or two new grammar concepts at a time. You can overlook the rest until you are ready for it.
If you already have a solid foundation in grammar, you will perhaps enjoy creating your own diagrams before looking at mine. Please check the Apologia pro descriptione mea (defense of my diagram) accompanying each diagram. If we disagree and you think you're right, please let me know. I'll be happy to write back.
Sentence 1
The federal government and many of the nation's leading telephone companies yesterday announced an agreement for a reshuffling of phone rates that would reduce the bills of tens of millions of less affluent consumers and lead to less significant cuts for other consumers and businesses.
- Stephen Labaton, The New York Times (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 2
Reports about medicines in newspapers and on television commonly contain little or no information about drugs' risks and cost, and often cite medical "experts" without disclosing their financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry, according to a new study.
- Susan Okie, The Washington Post (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 3
Unhappy bus and truck drivers argued yesterday that proposed limits on the time they can drive will cost the economy millions of dollars and make the roads less safe.
- Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 4
Gov. George W. Bush, who recently advocated DNA testing to "erase any doubts" from some death penalty cases, said yesterday he would probably delay the looming execution of a convicted killer whose attorneys are fighting for new DNA tests.
- Mark Babineck, Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A4)
Sentence 5
There is little evidence yet of the "new approach" that Bobby Knight promised in return for one last chance to behave suitably as men's basketball coach at Indiana University.
- Louisville, KY, The Courier-Journal, June 1, 2000, editorial page
Sentence 6
Peterson's, publisher of a guide to four-year colleges, said yesterday that from now on it will disclose to readers that schools pay for extra information about themselves in the book.
- Arlene Levinson, Associated Press (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 7
Using a new kind of stroke rehabilitation therapy, scientists have shown for the first time that the brain can be coaxed into reorganizing its circuitry so that people regain nearly full use of partially paralyzed limbs, even if the stroke happened years ago.
- From New York Times and AP Dispatches (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A8)
Sentence 8
Side air bags--the latest in high-tech auto safety devices--are providing effective protection in actual crashes while largely avoiding inadvertent injuries to passengers, an industry technical group reported yesterday.
- R. Alonzo-Zaldivar, Los Angeles Times (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 9
TV networks are a lot like pesky phone solicitors, the people who call you as you are about to dig into a bowl of spaghetti and try to sell you Venetian blinds you don't want or some kind of helmet your gutters don't need.
- Thomas Nord (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page D1)
Sentence 10
After punishing basketball coach Bobby Knight last month for misbehavior--but not firing him--Indiana University is still wrestling with its feelings about whether it did enough over the years to prevent Knight's heated confrontations with players, referees and others.
- The Courier-Journal, June 4, 2000, page A1
Sentence 11
It's hard for many people to balance work and family, but entrepreneurs running a company out of their homes learn quickly that it can be impossible to separate the two.
- Joyce M. Rosenberg, Associated Press (published on June 5, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page C1)
Sentence 12
The advocacy group Human Rights Watch claims the nation's war on drugs unfairly targets African Americans, who are far more likely to be imprisoned for drug offenses than whites even though far more whites use illegal drugs than blacks.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 13
The group's report, to be released today, said that blacks accounted for 62 percent of the drug offenders sent to state prisons nationwide in 1996, the most recent year for which statistics are available, although they represent just 12 percent of the U.S. population.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 14
The new investigation found no credible evidence to support allegations in recent years from former Memphis bar owner Loyd Jowers and former FBI agent Donald Wilson, and earlier from Ray himself, that a mysterious "Raoul" or others, including federal agents, police or black ministers, participated in a plot to kill King.
- Michael J. Sniffen, Associated Press (published on June 10, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 15
It is a rare testimonial to the transplant system, which for the last several years has been rocked by bitter charges of unfairness, seen nasty internal fighting explode into embarrassing public view, warred over government attempts to step in and solve the controversy, and suffered under the historic shortage of donor organs.
- Elizabeth Neus, Gannett News Service (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A18)
Sentence 16
President Clinton opened the door yesterday for states to provide unemployment pay to workers who take unpaid time off to care for a newborn child or sick relative, expanding an already popular Family Leave Act.
- Associated Press (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 17
In response to such complaints, the Regional Airport Authority has announced it will seek $215 million to cut in half the time needed to move about 1,000 families whose neighborhoods have been identified as most adversely affected by airport noise.
- Butch John (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 18
Key segments of the nation's news audience, particularly younger and better-educated Americans, and those seeking financial information, are turning increasingly to the Internet, says a new poll on media trends.
Will Lester, Associated Press (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 19
Keeping your lips zipped when things sour is the best piece of blunt marriage advice the couple will offer in their sold-out appearances at the Louisville Public Library tonight and on public radio station WFPL tomorrow morning.
- Tom Dorsey, TV and Radio Critic (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page F1)
Sentence 20
His comments came after Jefferson County Judge-Executive Rebecca Jackson and all three county commissioners sent a hand-delivered letter directing him not to "issue any statements of commitment, or send a memorandum of understanding at this time on behalf of the county" to the Rockets about plans for an arena.
- Sheldon S. Schafer and Chris Poynter (published on June 13, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
Sentences by Contemporary Journalists
As a teacher of foreign languages, I am disturbed by the inability of many, if not most, of my first-year students to deal effectively with even the most basic elements of grammar. Whereas in a bygone era students learned the parts of speech and their respective functions (and demonstrated this knowledge by diagramming sentences), today's students enter high school unsure of the difference between nouns and verbs, and totally befuddled if asked to identify gerunds and participles, direct object objects and predicate nominatives.
Perhaps you are one of these students. If so, welcome to my web site, which I hope will familiarize you with as much grammar as you will need to know. Don't be alarmed by the elaborate diagrams; in mini-lessons following each diagram, you will be introduced to one or two new grammar concepts at a time. You can overlook the rest until you are ready for it.
If you already have a solid foundation in grammar, you will perhaps enjoy creating your own diagrams before looking at mine. Please check the Apologia pro descriptione mea (defense of my diagram) accompanying each diagram. If we disagree and you think you're right, please let me know. I'll be happy to write back.
Sentence 1
The federal government and many of the nation's leading telephone companies yesterday announced an agreement for a reshuffling of phone rates that would reduce the bills of tens of millions of less affluent consumers and lead to less significant cuts for other consumers and businesses.
- Stephen Labaton, The New York Times (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 2
Reports about medicines in newspapers and on television commonly contain little or no information about drugs' risks and cost, and often cite medical "experts" without disclosing their financial ties to the pharmaceutical industry, according to a new study.
- Susan Okie, The Washington Post (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 3
Unhappy bus and truck drivers argued yesterday that proposed limits on the time they can drive will cost the economy millions of dollars and make the roads less safe.
- Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 4
Gov. George W. Bush, who recently advocated DNA testing to "erase any doubts" from some death penalty cases, said yesterday he would probably delay the looming execution of a convicted killer whose attorneys are fighting for new DNA tests.
- Mark Babineck, Associated Press (published on June 1, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A4)
Sentence 5
There is little evidence yet of the "new approach" that Bobby Knight promised in return for one last chance to behave suitably as men's basketball coach at Indiana University.
- Louisville, KY, The Courier-Journal, June 1, 2000, editorial page
Sentence 6
Peterson's, publisher of a guide to four-year colleges, said yesterday that from now on it will disclose to readers that schools pay for extra information about themselves in the book.
- Arlene Levinson, Associated Press (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 7
Using a new kind of stroke rehabilitation therapy, scientists have shown for the first time that the brain can be coaxed into reorganizing its circuitry so that people regain nearly full use of partially paralyzed limbs, even if the stroke happened years ago.
- From New York Times and AP Dispatches (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A8)
Sentence 8
Side air bags--the latest in high-tech auto safety devices--are providing effective protection in actual crashes while largely avoiding inadvertent injuries to passengers, an industry technical group reported yesterday.
- R. Alonzo-Zaldivar, Los Angeles Times (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 9
TV networks are a lot like pesky phone solicitors, the people who call you as you are about to dig into a bowl of spaghetti and try to sell you Venetian blinds you don't want or some kind of helmet your gutters don't need.
- Thomas Nord (published on June 2, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page D1)
Sentence 10
After punishing basketball coach Bobby Knight last month for misbehavior--but not firing him--Indiana University is still wrestling with its feelings about whether it did enough over the years to prevent Knight's heated confrontations with players, referees and others.
- The Courier-Journal, June 4, 2000, page A1
Sentence 11
It's hard for many people to balance work and family, but entrepreneurs running a company out of their homes learn quickly that it can be impossible to separate the two.
- Joyce M. Rosenberg, Associated Press (published on June 5, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page C1)
Sentence 12
The advocacy group Human Rights Watch claims the nation's war on drugs unfairly targets African Americans, who are far more likely to be imprisoned for drug offenses than whites even though far more whites use illegal drugs than blacks.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 13
The group's report, to be released today, said that blacks accounted for 62 percent of the drug offenders sent to state prisons nationwide in 1996, the most recent year for which statistics are available, although they represent just 12 percent of the U.S. population.
- Michael A. Fletcher, The Washington Post (published on June 8, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 14
The new investigation found no credible evidence to support allegations in recent years from former Memphis bar owner Loyd Jowers and former FBI agent Donald Wilson, and earlier from Ray himself, that a mysterious "Raoul" or others, including federal agents, police or black ministers, participated in a plot to kill King.
- Michael J. Sniffen, Associated Press (published on June 10, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 15
It is a rare testimonial to the transplant system, which for the last several years has been rocked by bitter charges of unfairness, seen nasty internal fighting explode into embarrassing public view, warred over government attempts to step in and solve the controversy, and suffered under the historic shortage of donor organs.
- Elizabeth Neus, Gannett News Service (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A18)
Sentence 16
President Clinton opened the door yesterday for states to provide unemployment pay to workers who take unpaid time off to care for a newborn child or sick relative, expanding an already popular Family Leave Act.
- Associated Press (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A5)
Sentence 17
In response to such complaints, the Regional Airport Authority has announced it will seek $215 million to cut in half the time needed to move about 1,000 families whose neighborhoods have been identified as most adversely affected by airport noise.
- Butch John (published on June 11, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence 18
Key segments of the nation's news audience, particularly younger and better-educated Americans, and those seeking financial information, are turning increasingly to the Internet, says a new poll on media trends.
Will Lester, Associated Press (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A3)
Sentence 19
Keeping your lips zipped when things sour is the best piece of blunt marriage advice the couple will offer in their sold-out appearances at the Louisville Public Library tonight and on public radio station WFPL tomorrow morning.
- Tom Dorsey, TV and Radio Critic (published on June 12, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page F1)
Sentence 20
His comments came after Jefferson County Judge-Executive Rebecca Jackson and all three county commissioners sent a hand-delivered letter directing him not to "issue any statements of commitment, or send a memorandum of understanding at this time on behalf of the county" to the Rockets about plans for an arena.
- Sheldon S. Schafer and Chris Poynter (published on June 13, 2000, in Louisville, KY, in The Courier-Journal, page A1)
Sentence Diagrams
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
The Anatomy of a Sentence
Can you diagram this 100-word sentence?
Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram’s, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
If you take it step by step, it's not so hard.
When you're ready to see the diagrams, click below.
Part 1: you walk, but you concentrate
Part 2: you walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 3: you, a Christmas procrastinator, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 4: you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 5: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom .
Part 6: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 7: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 8: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 9: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 10: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 11: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 12: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 13: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 14: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle.
Part 15: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
Check out my new book, Analyzing the Grammar of Literature: Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers! See the description below.
*** A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming is now in its second edition. Its 114 pages contain the definitions of 97 grammatical terms, a page of diagramming symbols, 105 diagramming examples ranging in difficulty from very easy to very difficult, 30 exercises containing 274 sentences to be diagrammed, a separate answer section with a diagram and a verbal analysis of each sentence, and a concluding section of 30 sentences of medium length (with solutions), intended as a review of most of the diagramming concepts presented in the book.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the second edition is $14 (including book-rate shipment within the United States), slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
At long last, you may purchase student copies of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. The student copy contains all the material of the regular edition with the exception of the answers (diagramming solutions and explanations) to the exercises. Additional space has been provided so that students who write small and work carefully will be able to construct most of their diagrams in their books. The price of a student copy is $12.50 ($11.50 when more than one book is ordered).
* * * * *
For Young Learners
*** A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A First Book of Sentence Diagramming is a diagramming workbook for elementary and middle-school students. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 115 model diagrams and 250 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 250 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 120 pages and costs $15 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-120 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
*** A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming is intended for middle-school and high-school students. This book begins where A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ends and has the same basic structure. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 82 model diagrams and 201 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 201 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 133 pages and costs $16 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-133 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
Now in its second edition!
***Diagramming Step by Step***
~ One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence ~
Diagramming Step by Step: One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence, my fourth book of sentence diagramming, is similar to the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming; however, there are several important differences:
1 - The examples and exercises of Diagramming Step by Step are completely new.
2 - The teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has 158 pages, 44 more than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. Student copies are also available. They do not have answers in the back; in every other respect, they are the same as the teacher's edition.
3 - Diagramming Step by Step has 40 more diagramming examples than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming.
4 - Diagramming Step by Step has 83 more sentences for students to diagram; moreover, ten of these sentences have more than 100 words each. A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming has no sentences of this length. Click here to see one of these 100-word sentences.
5 - The instructional section of the book is divided into 24 lessons, each with a page of grammar explanation, a page of model diagrams, and a page of sentences to be diagrammed by the student. Click here to see an entire lesson (three pages). I regret the poor quality of some images.
6 - In a section entitled "People in the Park," a storyteller (that's me) tells stories about the lives of people in the park, and the student is expected to diagram the sentences of these stories. Grammar hints are provided for those who need them. Click here to see one of the stories.
Click here to see the table of contents.
Like the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming, the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has, in the back, "answers" (diagrams and explanations) for every sentence in every exercise, including "People in the Park" and "100-word Sentences."
Should you buy this book if you already have A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Not necessarily, but if you are looking for additional diagramming challenges for yourself or your students, you will find plenty in this book.
Should you buy this book instead of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Again, not necessarily. This book may have more material than you need.
Diagramming Step by Step is also available in an enlarged edition. It features 24 additional pages, each entitled "Writing Correctly." These pages offer students writing tips related to the topics of the corresponding 24 lessons. Click here to view two of these pages.
I have dedicated this book to my recently deceased wife of 41 years, Joni. For that reason, I have tried to make it my best diagramming book. If I ever seek a publisher for one of my books, this will be the one. Click here to view pictures of Joni and to read about her life and death.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step is $18. A student copy sells for $12.50. The enlarged edition (the teacher's edition with 24 pages of writing tips--182 pages in all) sells for $20. The prices, which include handling and media-mail shipment within the United States, are slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
New in 2009!
*** Analyzing the Grammar of Literature ***
Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers
This, my fifth book of sentence diagramming, is unlike any of the other four and, to the best of my knowledge, unlike any other book available. It is not for beginners. It offers 130 sentences gleaned from the works of 57 British and American writers. The shortest sentence in the collection has 70 words, the longest 472. The median length (the length of the sentence right in the middle) is 100 words; to be precise, Sentence 65 has 99 words, Sentence 66 has 100.
Diagrams of all 130 sentences are contained in in the "back" of the book, i.e., in the final five-sixths of the book. Each diagram occupies at least one page of the book; the longest covers four pages.
Degree of syntactic difficulty played no role in the selection of sentences. Sentence length and author’s literary reputation were the major criteria
by Eugene R. Moutoux
~ One Way of Learning English Grammar ~
The Anatomy of a Sentence
Can you diagram this 100-word sentence?
Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram’s, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
If you take it step by step, it's not so hard.
When you're ready to see the diagrams, click below.
Part 1: you walk, but you concentrate
Part 2: you walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 3: you, a Christmas procrastinator, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 4: you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom
Part 5: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, but you concentrate on Mom .
Part 6: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 7: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 8: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but you concentrate on Mom.
Part 9: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 10: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 11: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 12: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 13: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom.
Part 14: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle.
Part 15: Every year on the afternoon of December 24, you, a Christmas procrastinator, loaded down with sacks and boxes, walk from store to store, down endless aisles, your eyes scanning windows and racks to find the perfect presents for Mom, Grandpa, and Uncle Joe, but since you know in your heart of hearts that Uncle Joe will appreciate nothing you give him and that you will capitulate to necessity and buy Grandpa a fifth of Seagram's, you concentrate on Mom, as you move into the aisle that you hope to be able to call the final stop of this holiday season.
Check out my new book, Analyzing the Grammar of Literature: Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers! See the description below.
*** A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming is now in its second edition. Its 114 pages contain the definitions of 97 grammatical terms, a page of diagramming symbols, 105 diagramming examples ranging in difficulty from very easy to very difficult, 30 exercises containing 274 sentences to be diagrammed, a separate answer section with a diagram and a verbal analysis of each sentence, and a concluding section of 30 sentences of medium length (with solutions), intended as a review of most of the diagramming concepts presented in the book.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the second edition is $14 (including book-rate shipment within the United States), slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
At long last, you may purchase student copies of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. The student copy contains all the material of the regular edition with the exception of the answers (diagramming solutions and explanations) to the exercises. Additional space has been provided so that students who write small and work carefully will be able to construct most of their diagrams in their books. The price of a student copy is $12.50 ($11.50 when more than one book is ordered).
* * * * *
For Young Learners
*** A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A First Book of Sentence Diagramming is a diagramming workbook for elementary and middle-school students. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 115 model diagrams and 250 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 250 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 120 pages and costs $15 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-120 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A First Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
*** A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming ***
A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming is intended for middle-school and high-school students. This book begins where A First Book of Sentence Diagramming ends and has the same basic structure. The student edition of this book contains, in addition to definitions and explanations, some 82 model diagrams and 201 sentences for students to diagram. These model diagrams and sentences are entirely new; they are not taken from A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming or from my web site. Space is provided in the book for the student's diagrams.
A separate teacher's edition of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming contains all of the pages of the student edition as well as solutions (diagrams of the 201 sentences), eight unit tests, and test solutions.
The student edition has 86 pages and costs $12.50 (less for multiple copies). The teacher's edition has 133 pages and costs $16 (less for multiple copies). These prices include book-rate postage within the United States.
Teachers, you may photocopy, for free distribution to your students, the material on pages 87-133 of the teacher's edition: unit tests and solutions for all exercises and tests; furthermore, if neither your schools nor your students can or will purchase student copies, you may photocopy pages 1-86 as well for free distribution to your students. All other rights are reserved by the author.
If you would like to view the table of contents of A Second Book of Sentence Diagramming, please click here. To view the unit divider page for Unit I, click here. Each of the eight units is introduced by a similar page. To view the first page of Lesson 22, click here.
If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
Now in its second edition!
***Diagramming Step by Step***
~ One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence ~
Diagramming Step by Step: One Hundred and Fifty-five Steps to Diagramming Excellence, my fourth book of sentence diagramming, is similar to the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming; however, there are several important differences:
1 - The examples and exercises of Diagramming Step by Step are completely new.
2 - The teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has 158 pages, 44 more than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming. Student copies are also available. They do not have answers in the back; in every other respect, they are the same as the teacher's edition.
3 - Diagramming Step by Step has 40 more diagramming examples than A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming.
4 - Diagramming Step by Step has 83 more sentences for students to diagram; moreover, ten of these sentences have more than 100 words each. A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming has no sentences of this length. Click here to see one of these 100-word sentences.
5 - The instructional section of the book is divided into 24 lessons, each with a page of grammar explanation, a page of model diagrams, and a page of sentences to be diagrammed by the student. Click here to see an entire lesson (three pages). I regret the poor quality of some images.
6 - In a section entitled "People in the Park," a storyteller (that's me) tells stories about the lives of people in the park, and the student is expected to diagram the sentences of these stories. Grammar hints are provided for those who need them. Click here to see one of the stories.
Click here to see the table of contents.
Like the second edition of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming, the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step has, in the back, "answers" (diagrams and explanations) for every sentence in every exercise, including "People in the Park" and "100-word Sentences."
Should you buy this book if you already have A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Not necessarily, but if you are looking for additional diagramming challenges for yourself or your students, you will find plenty in this book.
Should you buy this book instead of A Workbook of Sentence Diagramming? Again, not necessarily. This book may have more material than you need.
Diagramming Step by Step is also available in an enlarged edition. It features 24 additional pages, each entitled "Writing Correctly." These pages offer students writing tips related to the topics of the corresponding 24 lessons. Click here to view two of these pages.
I have dedicated this book to my recently deceased wife of 41 years, Joni. For that reason, I have tried to make it my best diagramming book. If I ever seek a publisher for one of my books, this will be the one. Click here to view pictures of Joni and to read about her life and death.
Teachers purchasing a copy of this book may photocopy all or some of its pages for free distribution to their students.
The price of the teacher's edition of Diagramming Step by Step is $18. A student copy sells for $12.50. The enlarged edition (the teacher's edition with 24 pages of writing tips--182 pages in all) sells for $20. The prices, which include handling and media-mail shipment within the United States, are slightly less per book if multiple copies are ordered. If you want to buy one or more copies of this book, please email me at ermoutoux@juno.com. I will send you my address and you can then mail me a check or money order (no cash or credit card numbers, please). Don't forget to include the address to which you want the book or books sent. Please allow 10-14 days for delivery.
* * * * *
New in 2009!
*** Analyzing the Grammar of Literature ***
Diagrams of 130 Long Sentences from British and American Writers
This, my fifth book of sentence diagramming, is unlike any of the other four and, to the best of my knowledge, unlike any other book available. It is not for beginners. It offers 130 sentences gleaned from the works of 57 British and American writers. The shortest sentence in the collection has 70 words, the longest 472. The median length (the length of the sentence right in the middle) is 100 words; to be precise, Sentence 65 has 99 words, Sentence 66 has 100.
Diagrams of all 130 sentences are contained in in the "back" of the book, i.e., in the final five-sixths of the book. Each diagram occupies at least one page of the book; the longest covers four pages.
Degree of syntactic difficulty played no role in the selection of sentences. Sentence length and author’s literary reputation were the major criteria
Pressure-swing distillation
Further information: Pressure-Swing Distillation (section on the main Azeotrope page)
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2009)
Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed.[clarification needed]
This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist[citation needed] to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed. This is particularly important in commercial applications.
Pressure-swing distillation is employed during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.
[edit] Industrial distillation
Typical industrial distillation towers
Main article: Continuous distillation
Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
Industrial distillation[27][33] is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower
Large-scale industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required.
Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.
Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps
Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method[27][34] or the Fenske equation[27] can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor-liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor-liquid equilibrium stages.
In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum.
Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column[35]
This packing material can either be random dumped packing (1-3" wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent of a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.[36][37] Considerable work as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).[38]
Further information: Pressure-Swing Distillation (section on the main Azeotrope page)
This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section; suggestions may be found on the talk page. (May 2009)
Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed.[clarification needed]
This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist[citation needed] to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed. This is particularly important in commercial applications.
Pressure-swing distillation is employed during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.
[edit] Industrial distillation
Typical industrial distillation towers
Main article: Continuous distillation
Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants.
Industrial distillation[27][33] is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower
Large-scale industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required.
Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.
Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps
Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method[27][34] or the Fenske equation[27] can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor-liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor-liquid equilibrium stages.
In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum.
Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation column[35]
This packing material can either be random dumped packing (1-3" wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent of a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.[36][37] Considerable work as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).[38]
Other types
* The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup.
* Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane.
* Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
* Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.
* Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible.
The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation":
* In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.
* In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
Other uses:
* Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name - wood alcohol.
* Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them.
[edit] Azeotropic distillation
Main article: Azeotropic distillation
Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 °C.
If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding an additional component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a (desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.
Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid-liquid separator ( a decanter ) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up.
High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component.
To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is necessary to increase the composition of the light key in the distillate.
[edit] Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation
The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.
* The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup.
* Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane.
* Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture.
* Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage.
* Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible.
The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation":
* In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump.
* In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 °C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump.
Other uses:
* Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name - wood alcohol.
* Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates poisonous congeners rather than removing them.
[edit] Azeotropic distillation
Main article: Azeotropic distillation
Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 °C.
If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding an additional component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a (desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.
Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid-liquid separator ( a decanter ) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up.
High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component.
To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is necessary to increase the composition of the light key in the distillate.
[edit] Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation
The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears.
This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks.
Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant.
Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling.
A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.
Steam distillation
Main article: Steam distillation
Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.[30] This process involves using bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.
Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care.
Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 °C. Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70 °C.
Perkin triangle distillation setup
1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teflon tap 1 6: Cold finger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in 9: Teflon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teflon tap 3 12: Still receiver
[edit] Vacuum distillation
Main article: Vacuum distillation
Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator.
This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure.
Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr.[31] 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a clear line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.
[edit] Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.
[edit] Short path distillation
Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold finger - bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate flask/distillate.
Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.[32] A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which often contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.
Main article: Steam distillation
Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.[30] This process involves using bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water.
Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care.
Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 °C. Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70 °C.
Perkin triangle distillation setup
1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teflon tap 1 6: Cold finger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in 9: Teflon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teflon tap 3 12: Still receiver
[edit] Vacuum distillation
Main article: Vacuum distillation
Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator.
This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure.
Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr.[31] 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a clear line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.
[edit] Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.
[edit] Short path distillation
Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold finger - bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate flask/distillate.
Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.[32] A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which often contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.
Laboratory scale distillation
Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapour is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types).
[edit] Simple distillation
In simple distillation, all the hot vapors produced are immediately channeled into a condenser that cools and condenses the vapors. Therefore, the distillate will not be pure - its composition will be identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure, and can be computed from Raoult's law.
As a result, simple distillation is usually used only to separate liquids whose boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C),[26] or to separate liquids from involatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually sufficiently different that Raoult's law may be neglected due to the insignificant contribution of the less volatile component. In this case, the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.
[edit] Fractional distillation
Main article: Fractional distillation
For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components well by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification [27].
As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.[28] In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.
More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates.[29]
Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapour is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types).
[edit] Simple distillation
In simple distillation, all the hot vapors produced are immediately channeled into a condenser that cools and condenses the vapors. Therefore, the distillate will not be pure - its composition will be identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure, and can be computed from Raoult's law.
As a result, simple distillation is usually used only to separate liquids whose boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 °C),[26] or to separate liquids from involatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually sufficiently different that Raoult's law may be neglected due to the insignificant contribution of the less volatile component. In this case, the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.
[edit] Fractional distillation
Main article: Fractional distillation
For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components well by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification [27].
As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.[28] In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description.
More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates.[29]
Continuous distillation
Main article: Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams as time passes during the operation. Continuous distillation produces at least two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.
Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time. Given a feed of in a specified composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages (practically, the number of trays or the height of packing). Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor-liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.
Continuous distillation requires building and configuring dedicated equipment. The resulting high investment cost restricts its use to the large scale.[clarification needed]
[edit] General improvements
Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor-liquid equilibrium.
There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include:
* Air condenser
* Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only)
* Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material)
* Spinning band distillation system.
Main article: Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams as time passes during the operation. Continuous distillation produces at least two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.
Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time. Given a feed of in a specified composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages (practically, the number of trays or the height of packing). Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor-liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.
Continuous distillation requires building and configuring dedicated equipment. The resulting high investment cost restricts its use to the large scale.[clarification needed]
[edit] General improvements
Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor-liquid equilibrium.
There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include:
* Air condenser
* Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only)
* Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material)
* Spinning band distillation system.
atch distillation
Main article: Batch distillation
A batch still showing the separation of A and B.
Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances A and B (with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point) in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid which contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid: the ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This in turn means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e. more enriched in B than the starting liquid).
The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which in turn results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio A : B in the distillate.
If the difference in vapor pressure between the two components A and B is large (generally expressed as the difference in boiling points), the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.
Main article: Batch distillation
A batch still showing the separation of A and B.
Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances A and B (with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point) in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid which contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid: the ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This in turn means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e. more enriched in B than the starting liquid).
The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which in turn results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio A : B in the distillate.
If the difference in vapor pressure between the two components A and B is large (generally expressed as the difference in boiling points), the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.
Idealized distillation model
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure in the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.
It is a common misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure and the vapors of each component will collect separately and purely. This, however, does not occur even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law, and assume that vapor-liquid equilibria are attained.
Raoult's law assumes that a component contributes to the total vapor pressure of the mixture in proportion to its percentage of the mixture and its vapor pressure when pure, or succinctly: partial pressure equals mole fraction multiplied by vapor pressure when pure. If one component changes another component's vapor pressure, or if the volatility of a component is dependent on its percentage in the mixture, the law will fail.
Dalton's law states that the total vapor pressure is the sum of the vapor pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. Note that a mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure, when the components are mutually soluble.
An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and thus are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily evaporate also, albeit being less concentrated in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch evaporates, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures.
The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is a composition with a boiling point higher or lower than the boiling point of each separate liquid. Virtually all liquids, when mixed and heated, will display azeotropic behaviour. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor-liquid equilibrium data is by measurement.
It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is evaporated and the other component, e.g. a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler and is called evaporation in engineering.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure in the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure.
It is a common misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure and the vapors of each component will collect separately and purely. This, however, does not occur even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law, and assume that vapor-liquid equilibria are attained.
Raoult's law assumes that a component contributes to the total vapor pressure of the mixture in proportion to its percentage of the mixture and its vapor pressure when pure, or succinctly: partial pressure equals mole fraction multiplied by vapor pressure when pure. If one component changes another component's vapor pressure, or if the volatility of a component is dependent on its percentage in the mixture, the law will fail.
Dalton's law states that the total vapor pressure is the sum of the vapor pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. Note that a mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure, when the components are mutually soluble.
An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and thus are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily evaporate also, albeit being less concentrated in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch evaporates, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures.
The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is a composition with a boiling point higher or lower than the boiling point of each separate liquid. Virtually all liquids, when mixed and heated, will display azeotropic behaviour. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor-liquid equilibrium data is by measurement.
It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is evaporated and the other component, e.g. a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler and is called evaporation in engineering.
Applications of distillation
The application of distillation can roughly be divided in four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinctively different from the former two in that in the processing of beverages, the distillation is not used as a true purification method but more to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate.
The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms (remaining least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated.
In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process.
The application of distillation can roughly be divided in four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinctively different from the former two in that in the processing of beverages, the distillation is not used as a true purification method but more to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate.
The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms (remaining least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated.
In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process.
History
Distillation apparatus of Zosimus, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887-1888).
Early types of distillation were known to the Babylonians in Mesopotamia (in what is now Iraq) from at least the 2nd millennium BC.[2] Archaeological excavations in northwest Pakistan have yielded evidence that the distillation of alcohol was known in the Indian subcontinent since 500 BC,[3] but only became common between 150 BC - 350 AD.[3] Primitive tribes of India used a method of distillation for producing Mahuda liquor. This crude and ancient method is not very effective.[4]
Distillation was later known to Hellenistic alchemists from the 1st century AD,[5][6][7] and the later development of large-scale distillation apparatus occurred in response to demands for spirits.[5] According to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of "destillatio per descensum" occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician from the 5th century.[8] Hypatia of Alexandria is credited with having invented an early distillation apparatus,[9] and the first clear description of early apparatus for distillation is given by Zosimos of Panopolis in the fourth century.[7]
The invention of highly effective "pure distillation" is credited to Arabic and Persian chemists in the Middle East from the 8th century. They produced distillation processes to isolate and purify chemical substances for industrial purposes such as isolating natural esters (perfumes) and producing pure alcohol.[10] The first among them was Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), in the 8th century, who is credited with the invention of numerous chemical apparatus and processes that are still in use today. In particular, his alembic was the first still with retorts which could fully purify chemicals, a precursor to the pot still, and its design has served as inspiration for modern micro-scale distillation apparatus such as the Hickman stillhead.[11] The isolation of ethanol (alcohol) as a pure compound through distillation was first achieved by the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus).[12] Petroleum was first distilled by the Persian alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) in the 9th century, for producing kerosene,[13] while steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century, for producing essential oils.[14]
As the works of Middle Eastern scribes made their way to India and became a part of Indian alchemy, several texts dedicated to distillation made their way to Indian libraries.[15] Among these was a treatise written by a scholar from Bagdad in 1034 titled Ainu-s-Sana'ah wa' Auna-s-Sana'ah.[15] Scholar Al-Jawbari travelled to India.[16] By the time of the writing of the Ain-e-Akbari, the process of distillation was well known in India.[17]
Distillation was introduced to medieval Europe through Latin translations of Arabic chemical treatises in the 12th century.[18] In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation)[19] the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed[20] that much of it derives from Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.
Distillation
Old Ukrainian vodka still
As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which acted as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour.[21] These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols such as cognac, Scotch whisky, tequila and some vodkas. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for the domestic production[22] of flower water or essential oils.
Early forms of distillation were batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists were reported to carry out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound[23].
In the early 19th century the basics of modern techniques including pre-heating and reflux were developed, particularly by the French[23], then in 1830 a British Patent was issued to Aeneas Coffey for a whiskey distillation column[24], which worked continuously and may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. In 1877, Ernest Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for ammonia distillation[25] and the same and subsequent years saw developments of this theme for oil and spirits.
With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method and the Fenske equation. The availability of powerful computers has also allowed direct computer simulation of distillation columns.
Distillation apparatus of Zosimus, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887-1888).
Early types of distillation were known to the Babylonians in Mesopotamia (in what is now Iraq) from at least the 2nd millennium BC.[2] Archaeological excavations in northwest Pakistan have yielded evidence that the distillation of alcohol was known in the Indian subcontinent since 500 BC,[3] but only became common between 150 BC - 350 AD.[3] Primitive tribes of India used a method of distillation for producing Mahuda liquor. This crude and ancient method is not very effective.[4]
Distillation was later known to Hellenistic alchemists from the 1st century AD,[5][6][7] and the later development of large-scale distillation apparatus occurred in response to demands for spirits.[5] According to K. B. Hoffmann the earliest mention of "destillatio per descensum" occurs in the writings of Aetius, a Greek physician from the 5th century.[8] Hypatia of Alexandria is credited with having invented an early distillation apparatus,[9] and the first clear description of early apparatus for distillation is given by Zosimos of Panopolis in the fourth century.[7]
The invention of highly effective "pure distillation" is credited to Arabic and Persian chemists in the Middle East from the 8th century. They produced distillation processes to isolate and purify chemical substances for industrial purposes such as isolating natural esters (perfumes) and producing pure alcohol.[10] The first among them was Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), in the 8th century, who is credited with the invention of numerous chemical apparatus and processes that are still in use today. In particular, his alembic was the first still with retorts which could fully purify chemicals, a precursor to the pot still, and its design has served as inspiration for modern micro-scale distillation apparatus such as the Hickman stillhead.[11] The isolation of ethanol (alcohol) as a pure compound through distillation was first achieved by the Arab chemist Al-Kindi (Alkindus).[12] Petroleum was first distilled by the Persian alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) in the 9th century, for producing kerosene,[13] while steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century, for producing essential oils.[14]
As the works of Middle Eastern scribes made their way to India and became a part of Indian alchemy, several texts dedicated to distillation made their way to Indian libraries.[15] Among these was a treatise written by a scholar from Bagdad in 1034 titled Ainu-s-Sana'ah wa' Auna-s-Sana'ah.[15] Scholar Al-Jawbari travelled to India.[16] By the time of the writing of the Ain-e-Akbari, the process of distillation was well known in India.[17]
Distillation was introduced to medieval Europe through Latin translations of Arabic chemical treatises in the 12th century.[18] In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation)[19] the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed[20] that much of it derives from Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation.
Distillation
Old Ukrainian vodka still
As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which acted as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour.[21] These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols such as cognac, Scotch whisky, tequila and some vodkas. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for the domestic production[22] of flower water or essential oils.
Early forms of distillation were batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists were reported to carry out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound[23].
In the early 19th century the basics of modern techniques including pre-heating and reflux were developed, particularly by the French[23], then in 1830 a British Patent was issued to Aeneas Coffey for a whiskey distillation column[24], which worked continuously and may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. In 1877, Ernest Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for ammonia distillation[25] and the same and subsequent years saw developments of this theme for oil and spirits.
With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method and the Fenske equation. The availability of powerful computers has also allowed direct computer simulation of distillation columns.
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction.
Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power generation and heating. Water is distilled to remove impurities, such as salt from seawater. Air is distilled to separate its components—notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon—for industrial use. Distillation of fermented solutions has been used since ancient times to produce distilled beverages with a higher alcohol content. The premises where distillation is carried out, especially distillation of alcohol, are known as a distillery.
Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power generation and heating. Water is distilled to remove impurities, such as salt from seawater. Air is distilled to separate its components—notably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon—for industrial use. Distillation of fermented solutions has been used since ancient times to produce distilled beverages with a higher alcohol content. The premises where distillation is carried out, especially distillation of alcohol, are known as a distillery.
Sabtu, 23 Januari 2010
Variabel Proses.
Beberapa variable proses yang berhubungan erat dengan bidang teknik kimia antara lain:
1. Massa dan volum. Hubungan massa dan volum adalah berat jenis atau densitas. Seringkali juga dinyatakan dalam specific volume dan specific gravity.
2.
Kecepatan alir (flow rate). Proses yang berlangsung sinambung atau kontinyu memerlukan data kecepatan bahan yang disebut kecepatan alir. Alat yang dapat mengukur kecepatan alir antara lain, pitot tube, orifice meter, venturi meter, flow nozzle, dan rotameter.
Macam-macam jenis kecepatan alir :
a. kecepatan alir linier rata-rata dalam pipa, dinyatakan dalam satuan panjang linier setiap satuan waktu.
b. Kecepatan alir volumetric (volumetric flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya volum fluida yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
c. Keceparan alir massa ( mass flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya massa yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
1. Komposisi kimia. Berat atom dan berat molekul merupakan hubungan mol dengan massa bahan. Bahan campuran berisi lebih dari satu komponen, untuk itu perlu diketahui isi (atau komposisi) masing-masing komponen penyusun bahan itu. Komposisi dapat dinyatakan dalam beberapa cara, yaitu:
a. fraksi massa atau fraksi bera, Biasanya untuk komposisi bahan berbentuk cair atau padat dinyatakan dalam fraksi massa. Total fraksi massa adalah 1,00.
b. fraksi mol, Komposisi bahan dalam fase gas biasanya dinyatakan dalam fraksi mol. Total fraksi mol = 1,0.
c. konsentrasi, Konsentrasi adalah banyaknya bahan dalam campuran setiap satuan volum. Ppm = part per million = bagian per sejuta.
2. Tekanan. Hubungan tekanan yang ditunjukkan alat ukur (gauge) dengan tekanan sesungguhnya (absolute) adalah:
Tekanan absolute = tekanan gauge + tekanan atmosfer.
1 atm = 14,696 psi = 760 mmHg = 10,333 mH2O.
3. Temperatur.
Contoh :
Suatu botol bertuliskan larutan HCl teknis 28% (w/w). Tentukan dalam % mol larutan itu.
Penyelesaian:
Misal 100 g larutan HCl 28% maka:
Komponen % Berat Berat, g Mol % Mol
HCl 28 28 28/36.5=0.77 (0.77/4.77)×100%=16.14
H2O 72 72 72/18=4 (4/4.77)×100%=83.86
Total 100 100 4.77 100
Jadi larutan itu larutan HCl 16,14% (%mol).
Diagram Alir Proses
Adalah gambaran visual yang menunjukkan semua aliran bahan-bahan baik yang masuk alat maupun yang keluar, disertai data-data susunan dari campuran bahan-bahan aliran. Gambaran ini bisa bersifat kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Kualitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan yang masuk dan keluar.
Kuantitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan dan kuantitasnya.
Jadi, dalam membuat diagram alir proses, harus mencantumkan data kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Suatu unit proses dapat digambarkan dalam sebuah kotak atau simbol alat, dan garis panas yang menunjukkan arah aliran bahan. Arus dalam diagram alir harus diberi label yang menunjukkan:
1.
Variable proses yang diketahui dan
2.
Permisalan variable yang akan dicari dengan simbol variable.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus:
1.
Tulis nilai dan satuan semua variabel yang diketahui di arus dalam gambar.
Contoh:
Narasi: gas berisi 21% mol O2 dan 79% N2 pada suhu 320 oC dan 1,4 atm mengalir dengan kecepatan 400 gmol/jam.
Diagram alir :
1. Tandai dengan symbol untuk variable yang akan dicari
Contoh:
Diagram alir berfungsi sebagai papan hitung untuk menyelesaikan masalah neraca, baik neraca massa maupun neraca panas.
Untuk dapat menggambarkan proses dari suatu narasi, seseorang harus mempunyai pengetahuan tentang proses dan sifat-sifat bahan (termodinamika). Oleh karena itu mahasiswa dituntut sering membaca buku tentang proses dan laporan praktek kerja.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus dapat dibaca di buku Felder and Rousseau.
Contoh:
Sistem adalah bagian atau keseluruhan proses yang ditinjau, yang biasanya untuk memisahkan antara sistem dengan bagian luar sistem.
Proses adalah suatu peristiwa dimana bahan mengalami perubahan fisis atau kimia atau keduanya.
Perubahan fisis : tidak ada reaksi kimia.
Perubahan kimia : mengalami reaksi-reaksi.
Peran proses pemisahan di industri kimia:
Ditinjau secara makro, proses-proses yang terjadi secara alamiah dapat diartikan sebagai proses pencampuran yang terjadi secara spontan dan merupakan proses yang tidak dapat balik. Berarti untuk memisahkan suatu konstituen dari campurannya diperlukan suatu usaha yaitu usaha termodinamika sehingga terjadi proses berlawanan terhadap proses alam. Maka dalam operasi pemisahan campuran perlu dimasukkan sejumlah “separating
agent ” tertentu.
Separating agent yang biasa digunakan:
1. tenaga panas, seperti steam, bahan bakar. Contoh alat : distilasi, evaporasi, pengeringan, alat penukar panas dll.
2. Sejumlah massa bahan, seperti pelarut atau penjerap. Contoh alat: ekstraksi, absorbsi, adsorpsi, stipping dll.
3.
Tenaga mekanik (tekanan). Contoh alat : filtrasi, sentrifugasi, sedimentasi dll.
Metode pemisahan konstituen dari campurannya, dapat dibedakan menurut kategori:
1. Pemisahan menurut dasar operasi difusional. Pemisahan ini dipilih jika umpannya homogen. Transfer massa dan pana konstituen berlangsung secara difusi antara 2 fase atau lebih. Contoh: distilasi (flash, kontinyu, batch), absorpsi, striping, ekstraksi, adsorpsi, ion exchange dll.
2. Pemisahan secara mekanik. Pemisahan ini dilakukan untuk campuran heterogen. Contoh : decanter, sedimentasi, sentrifuge, filtrasi, screening, dll.
3. Pemisahan menggunakan reaksi kimia.
Di dalam proses dan peralatan di industri, rangkaian peralatan menyangkut kedua jenis proses itu, yaitu:
1. Unit operation (satuan operasi): unit dengan perubahan fisis atau seringkali disebut Operasi Teknik Kimia.
2. Unit processes (satuan proses): unit dengan reaksi kimia.
Unit operation meliputi:
1. transportasi fluida (perpindahan pada proses alir),
2. perpindahan panas dalam alat penukar panas ( heat exchanger),
3. separator, padat-padat : screening. Padat-cair : sedimentasi, filtrasi, Cair – gas : absorpsi, stripper, distilasi, evaporasi. Cair-cair : ekstraksi cair-cair, dekantasi, dll.
4. pencampuran
Unit Processes meliputi:
1. pembakaran bahan bakar dalam burner, furnace.
2. Reaksi kimia dalam reaktor.
3. Fermentasi.
Unsteady State: proses tidak ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable proses mengalami perubahan nilai terhadap waktu.
Steady State: proses dalam keadaan ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable porses yang ditinjau tidak berubah terhadap waktu.
Penggolongan Proses :
1. batch : tidak ada bahan masuk atau keluar. Jadi prosesnya USS.
2. kontinyu : kecepatan arus masuk sama dengan kecepatan arus keluar, jadi prosesnya SS.
3. Semi batch atau semi kontinyu, prosesnya USS.
Beberapa variable proses yang berhubungan erat dengan bidang teknik kimia antara lain:
1. Massa dan volum. Hubungan massa dan volum adalah berat jenis atau densitas. Seringkali juga dinyatakan dalam specific volume dan specific gravity.
2.
Kecepatan alir (flow rate). Proses yang berlangsung sinambung atau kontinyu memerlukan data kecepatan bahan yang disebut kecepatan alir. Alat yang dapat mengukur kecepatan alir antara lain, pitot tube, orifice meter, venturi meter, flow nozzle, dan rotameter.
Macam-macam jenis kecepatan alir :
a. kecepatan alir linier rata-rata dalam pipa, dinyatakan dalam satuan panjang linier setiap satuan waktu.
b. Kecepatan alir volumetric (volumetric flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya volum fluida yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
c. Keceparan alir massa ( mass flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya massa yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
1. Komposisi kimia. Berat atom dan berat molekul merupakan hubungan mol dengan massa bahan. Bahan campuran berisi lebih dari satu komponen, untuk itu perlu diketahui isi (atau komposisi) masing-masing komponen penyusun bahan itu. Komposisi dapat dinyatakan dalam beberapa cara, yaitu:
a. fraksi massa atau fraksi bera, Biasanya untuk komposisi bahan berbentuk cair atau padat dinyatakan dalam fraksi massa. Total fraksi massa adalah 1,00.
b. fraksi mol, Komposisi bahan dalam fase gas biasanya dinyatakan dalam fraksi mol. Total fraksi mol = 1,0.
c. konsentrasi, Konsentrasi adalah banyaknya bahan dalam campuran setiap satuan volum. Ppm = part per million = bagian per sejuta.
2. Tekanan. Hubungan tekanan yang ditunjukkan alat ukur (gauge) dengan tekanan sesungguhnya (absolute) adalah:
Tekanan absolute = tekanan gauge + tekanan atmosfer.
1 atm = 14,696 psi = 760 mmHg = 10,333 mH2O.
3. Temperatur.
Contoh :
Suatu botol bertuliskan larutan HCl teknis 28% (w/w). Tentukan dalam % mol larutan itu.
Penyelesaian:
Misal 100 g larutan HCl 28% maka:
Komponen % Berat Berat, g Mol % Mol
HCl 28 28 28/36.5=0.77 (0.77/4.77)×100%=16.14
H2O 72 72 72/18=4 (4/4.77)×100%=83.86
Total 100 100 4.77 100
Jadi larutan itu larutan HCl 16,14% (%mol).
Diagram Alir Proses
Adalah gambaran visual yang menunjukkan semua aliran bahan-bahan baik yang masuk alat maupun yang keluar, disertai data-data susunan dari campuran bahan-bahan aliran. Gambaran ini bisa bersifat kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Kualitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan yang masuk dan keluar.
Kuantitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan dan kuantitasnya.
Jadi, dalam membuat diagram alir proses, harus mencantumkan data kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Suatu unit proses dapat digambarkan dalam sebuah kotak atau simbol alat, dan garis panas yang menunjukkan arah aliran bahan. Arus dalam diagram alir harus diberi label yang menunjukkan:
1.
Variable proses yang diketahui dan
2.
Permisalan variable yang akan dicari dengan simbol variable.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus:
1.
Tulis nilai dan satuan semua variabel yang diketahui di arus dalam gambar.
Contoh:
Narasi: gas berisi 21% mol O2 dan 79% N2 pada suhu 320 oC dan 1,4 atm mengalir dengan kecepatan 400 gmol/jam.
Diagram alir :
1. Tandai dengan symbol untuk variable yang akan dicari
Contoh:
Diagram alir berfungsi sebagai papan hitung untuk menyelesaikan masalah neraca, baik neraca massa maupun neraca panas.
Untuk dapat menggambarkan proses dari suatu narasi, seseorang harus mempunyai pengetahuan tentang proses dan sifat-sifat bahan (termodinamika). Oleh karena itu mahasiswa dituntut sering membaca buku tentang proses dan laporan praktek kerja.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus dapat dibaca di buku Felder and Rousseau.
Contoh:
Sistem adalah bagian atau keseluruhan proses yang ditinjau, yang biasanya untuk memisahkan antara sistem dengan bagian luar sistem.
Proses adalah suatu peristiwa dimana bahan mengalami perubahan fisis atau kimia atau keduanya.
Perubahan fisis : tidak ada reaksi kimia.
Perubahan kimia : mengalami reaksi-reaksi.
Peran proses pemisahan di industri kimia:
Ditinjau secara makro, proses-proses yang terjadi secara alamiah dapat diartikan sebagai proses pencampuran yang terjadi secara spontan dan merupakan proses yang tidak dapat balik. Berarti untuk memisahkan suatu konstituen dari campurannya diperlukan suatu usaha yaitu usaha termodinamika sehingga terjadi proses berlawanan terhadap proses alam. Maka dalam operasi pemisahan campuran perlu dimasukkan sejumlah “separating
agent ” tertentu.
Separating agent yang biasa digunakan:
1. tenaga panas, seperti steam, bahan bakar. Contoh alat : distilasi, evaporasi, pengeringan, alat penukar panas dll.
2. Sejumlah massa bahan, seperti pelarut atau penjerap. Contoh alat: ekstraksi, absorbsi, adsorpsi, stipping dll.
3.
Tenaga mekanik (tekanan). Contoh alat : filtrasi, sentrifugasi, sedimentasi dll.
Metode pemisahan konstituen dari campurannya, dapat dibedakan menurut kategori:
1. Pemisahan menurut dasar operasi difusional. Pemisahan ini dipilih jika umpannya homogen. Transfer massa dan pana konstituen berlangsung secara difusi antara 2 fase atau lebih. Contoh: distilasi (flash, kontinyu, batch), absorpsi, striping, ekstraksi, adsorpsi, ion exchange dll.
2. Pemisahan secara mekanik. Pemisahan ini dilakukan untuk campuran heterogen. Contoh : decanter, sedimentasi, sentrifuge, filtrasi, screening, dll.
3. Pemisahan menggunakan reaksi kimia.
Di dalam proses dan peralatan di industri, rangkaian peralatan menyangkut kedua jenis proses itu, yaitu:
1. Unit operation (satuan operasi): unit dengan perubahan fisis atau seringkali disebut Operasi Teknik Kimia.
2. Unit processes (satuan proses): unit dengan reaksi kimia.
Unit operation meliputi:
1. transportasi fluida (perpindahan pada proses alir),
2. perpindahan panas dalam alat penukar panas ( heat exchanger),
3. separator, padat-padat : screening. Padat-cair : sedimentasi, filtrasi, Cair – gas : absorpsi, stripper, distilasi, evaporasi. Cair-cair : ekstraksi cair-cair, dekantasi, dll.
4. pencampuran
Unit Processes meliputi:
1. pembakaran bahan bakar dalam burner, furnace.
2. Reaksi kimia dalam reaktor.
3. Fermentasi.
Unsteady State: proses tidak ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable proses mengalami perubahan nilai terhadap waktu.
Steady State: proses dalam keadaan ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable porses yang ditinjau tidak berubah terhadap waktu.
Penggolongan Proses :
1. batch : tidak ada bahan masuk atau keluar. Jadi prosesnya USS.
2. kontinyu : kecepatan arus masuk sama dengan kecepatan arus keluar, jadi prosesnya SS.
3. Semi batch atau semi kontinyu, prosesnya USS.
Definisi Teknik Kimia:
Pemakaian prinsip-prinsip fisis bersama dengan prinsip-prinsip ekonomi dan human relations ke bidang yang menyangkut proses dan peralatannya dimana suatu bahan berubah bentuk, kandungan energinya, dan komposisinya.
Teknik Kimia berhubungan dengan:
1. Produksi bahan kimia baik di skala besar maupun kecil.
2. Membuat produk berskala besar (pabrik), berbeda dengan skala lab.
3. Merubah bahan baku menjadi produk bernilai ekonomi lebih tinggi.
4. Sektor: bahan kimia sampai energi, makanan dan minuman, obat-obatan.
5. Produk, yang dibuat melalui perubahan kimia (reaksi) atau/dan fisis (pemisahan).
6. Proses Industri kimia, seperti industri: pupuk, kimia murni, cat, zat warna, tinta, petrokimia, plastik, resin, sabun, deterjen, parfum, kosmetik, lemak dan minyak nabati, katalis, gas, minyak bumi, polimer, kertas, tekstil, makanan dan minuman, bioteknologi, dll.
Pentingnya penyusunan neraca: Neraca massa atau panas suatu sistem proses dalam industri merupakan perhitungan kuantitatif dari semua bahan-bahan yang masuk, yang keluar, yang terakumulasi (tersimpan) dan yang terbuang dalam sistem itu. Perhitungan neraca digunakan untuk mencari variable proses yang belum diketahui, berdasarkan data variable proses yang telah ditentukan/diketahui. Oleh karena itu, perlu disusun persaman yang menghubungkan data variable proses yang telah diketahui dengan varaiabel proses yang ingin dicari.
Dalam banyak kasus, diskripsi verbal (narasi) yang menjelaskan proses perlu disajikan dalam diskripsi visual, yaitu dalam bentuk gambar proses atau diagram alir proses. Beberapa definisi penting yang akan dibahas antara lain : variable proses, diagram alir proses, sistem, dan proses –proses di industri kimia.
Variabel Proses.
Beberapa variable proses yang berhubungan erat dengan bidang teknik kimia antara lain:
1. Massa dan volum. Hubungan massa dan volum adalah berat jenis atau densitas. Seringkali juga dinyatakan dalam specific volume dan specific gravity.
2.
Kecepatan alir (flow rate). Proses yang berlangsung sinambung atau kontinyu memerlukan data kecepatan bahan yang disebut kecepatan alir. Alat yang dapat mengukur kecepatan alir antara lain, pitot tube, orifice meter, venturi meter, flow nozzle, dan rotameter.
Macam-macam jenis kecepatan alir :
a. kecepatan alir linier rata-rata dalam pipa, dinyatakan dalam satuan panjang linier setiap satuan waktu.
b. Kecepatan alir volumetric (volumetric flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya volum fluida yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
c. Keceparan alir massa ( mass flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya massa yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
1. Komposisi kimia. Berat atom dan berat molekul merupakan hubungan mol dengan massa bahan. Bahan campuran berisi lebih dari satu komponen, untuk itu perlu diketahui isi (atau komposisi) masing-masing komponen penyusun bahan itu. Komposisi dapat dinyatakan dalam beberapa cara, yaitu:
a. fraksi massa atau fraksi bera, Biasanya untuk komposisi bahan berbentuk cair atau padat dinyatakan dalam fraksi massa. Total fraksi massa adalah 1,00.
b. fraksi mol, Komposisi bahan dalam fase gas biasanya dinyatakan dalam fraksi mol. Total fraksi mol = 1,0.
c. konsentrasi, Konsentrasi adalah banyaknya bahan dalam campuran setiap satuan volum. Ppm = part per million = bagian per sejuta.
2. Tekanan. Hubungan tekanan yang ditunjukkan alat ukur (gauge) dengan tekanan sesungguhnya (absolute) adalah:
Tekanan absolute = tekanan gauge + tekanan atmosfer.
1 atm = 14,696 psi = 760 mmHg = 10,333 mH2O.
3. Temperatur.
Contoh :
Suatu botol bertuliskan larutan HCl teknis 28% (w/w). Tentukan dalam % mol larutan itu.
Penyelesaian:
Misal 100 g larutan HCl 28% maka:
Komponen % Berat Berat, g Mol % Mol
HCl 28 28 28/36.5=0.77 (0.77/4.77)×100%=16.14
H2O 72 72 72/18=4 (4/4.77)×100%=83.86
Total 100 100 4.77 100
Jadi larutan itu larutan HCl 16,14% (%mol).
Diagram Alir Proses
Adalah gambaran visual yang menunjukkan semua aliran bahan-bahan baik yang masuk alat maupun yang keluar, disertai data-data susunan dari campuran bahan-bahan aliran. Gambaran ini bisa bersifat kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Kualitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan yang masuk dan keluar.
Kuantitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan dan kuantitasnya.
Jadi, dalam membuat diagram alir proses, harus mencantumkan data kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Suatu unit proses dapat digambarkan dalam sebuah kotak atau simbol alat, dan garis panas yang menunjukkan arah aliran bahan. Arus dalam diagram alir harus diberi label yang menunjukkan:
1.
Variable proses yang diketahui dan
2.
Permisalan variable yang akan dicari dengan simbol variable.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus:
1.
Tulis nilai dan satuan semua variabel yang diketahui di arus dalam gambar.
Contoh:
Narasi: gas berisi 21% mol O2 dan 79% N2 pada suhu 320 oC dan 1,4 atm mengalir dengan kecepatan 400 gmol/jam.
Diagram alir :
1. Tandai dengan symbol untuk variable yang akan dicari
Contoh:
Diagram alir berfungsi sebagai papan hitung untuk menyelesaikan masalah neraca, baik neraca massa maupun neraca panas.
Untuk dapat menggambarkan proses dari suatu narasi, seseorang harus mempunyai pengetahuan tentang proses dan sifat-sifat bahan (termodinamika). Oleh karena itu mahasiswa dituntut sering membaca buku tentang proses dan laporan praktek kerja.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus dapat dibaca di buku Felder and Rousseau.
Contoh:
Sistem adalah bagian atau keseluruhan proses yang ditinjau, yang biasanya untuk memisahkan antara sistem dengan bagian luar sistem.
Proses adalah suatu peristiwa dimana bahan mengalami perubahan fisis atau kimia atau keduanya.
Perubahan fisis : tidak ada reaksi kimia.
Perubahan kimia : mengalami reaksi-reaksi.
Peran proses pemisahan di industri kimia:
Ditinjau secara makro, proses-proses yang terjadi secara alamiah dapat diartikan sebagai proses pencampuran yang terjadi secara spontan dan merupakan proses yang tidak dapat balik. Berarti untuk memisahkan suatu konstituen dari campurannya diperlukan suatu usaha yaitu usaha termodinamika sehingga terjadi proses berlawanan terhadap proses alam. Maka dalam operasi pemisahan campuran perlu dimasukkan sejumlah “separating
agent ” tertentu.
Separating agent yang biasa digunakan:
1. tenaga panas, seperti steam, bahan bakar. Contoh alat : distilasi, evaporasi, pengeringan, alat penukar panas dll.
2. Sejumlah massa bahan, seperti pelarut atau penjerap. Contoh alat: ekstraksi, absorbsi, adsorpsi, stipping dll.
3.
Tenaga mekanik (tekanan). Contoh alat : filtrasi, sentrifugasi, sedimentasi dll.
Metode pemisahan konstituen dari campurannya, dapat dibedakan menurut kategori:
1. Pemisahan menurut dasar operasi difusional. Pemisahan ini dipilih jika umpannya homogen. Transfer massa dan pana konstituen berlangsung secara difusi antara 2 fase atau lebih. Contoh: distilasi (flash, kontinyu, batch), absorpsi, striping, ekstraksi, adsorpsi, ion exchange dll.
2. Pemisahan secara mekanik. Pemisahan ini dilakukan untuk campuran heterogen. Contoh : decanter, sedimentasi, sentrifuge, filtrasi, screening, dll.
3. Pemisahan menggunakan reaksi kimia.
Di dalam proses dan peralatan di industri, rangkaian peralatan menyangkut kedua jenis proses itu, yaitu:
1. Unit operation (satuan operasi): unit dengan perubahan fisis atau seringkali disebut Operasi Teknik Kimia.
2. Unit processes (satuan proses): unit dengan reaksi kimia.
Unit operation meliputi:
1. transportasi fluida (perpindahan pada proses alir),
2. perpindahan panas dalam alat penukar panas ( heat exchanger),
3. separator, padat-padat : screening. Padat-cair : sedimentasi, filtrasi, Cair – gas : absorpsi, stripper, distilasi, evaporasi. Cair-cair : ekstraksi cair-cair, dekantasi, dll.
4. pencampuran
Unit Processes meliputi:
1. pembakaran bahan bakar dalam burner, furnace.
2. Reaksi kimia dalam reaktor.
3. Fermentasi.
Unsteady State: proses tidak ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable proses mengalami perubahan nilai terhadap waktu.
Steady State: proses dalam keadaan ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable porses yang ditinjau tidak berubah terhadap waktu.
Penggolongan Proses :
1. batch : tidak ada bahan masuk atau keluar. Jadi prosesnya USS.
2. kontinyu : kecepatan arus masuk sama dengan kecepatan arus keluar, jadi prosesnya SS.
3. Semi batch atau semi kontinyu, prosesnya USS.
Pemakaian prinsip-prinsip fisis bersama dengan prinsip-prinsip ekonomi dan human relations ke bidang yang menyangkut proses dan peralatannya dimana suatu bahan berubah bentuk, kandungan energinya, dan komposisinya.
Teknik Kimia berhubungan dengan:
1. Produksi bahan kimia baik di skala besar maupun kecil.
2. Membuat produk berskala besar (pabrik), berbeda dengan skala lab.
3. Merubah bahan baku menjadi produk bernilai ekonomi lebih tinggi.
4. Sektor: bahan kimia sampai energi, makanan dan minuman, obat-obatan.
5. Produk, yang dibuat melalui perubahan kimia (reaksi) atau/dan fisis (pemisahan).
6. Proses Industri kimia, seperti industri: pupuk, kimia murni, cat, zat warna, tinta, petrokimia, plastik, resin, sabun, deterjen, parfum, kosmetik, lemak dan minyak nabati, katalis, gas, minyak bumi, polimer, kertas, tekstil, makanan dan minuman, bioteknologi, dll.
Pentingnya penyusunan neraca: Neraca massa atau panas suatu sistem proses dalam industri merupakan perhitungan kuantitatif dari semua bahan-bahan yang masuk, yang keluar, yang terakumulasi (tersimpan) dan yang terbuang dalam sistem itu. Perhitungan neraca digunakan untuk mencari variable proses yang belum diketahui, berdasarkan data variable proses yang telah ditentukan/diketahui. Oleh karena itu, perlu disusun persaman yang menghubungkan data variable proses yang telah diketahui dengan varaiabel proses yang ingin dicari.
Dalam banyak kasus, diskripsi verbal (narasi) yang menjelaskan proses perlu disajikan dalam diskripsi visual, yaitu dalam bentuk gambar proses atau diagram alir proses. Beberapa definisi penting yang akan dibahas antara lain : variable proses, diagram alir proses, sistem, dan proses –proses di industri kimia.
Variabel Proses.
Beberapa variable proses yang berhubungan erat dengan bidang teknik kimia antara lain:
1. Massa dan volum. Hubungan massa dan volum adalah berat jenis atau densitas. Seringkali juga dinyatakan dalam specific volume dan specific gravity.
2.
Kecepatan alir (flow rate). Proses yang berlangsung sinambung atau kontinyu memerlukan data kecepatan bahan yang disebut kecepatan alir. Alat yang dapat mengukur kecepatan alir antara lain, pitot tube, orifice meter, venturi meter, flow nozzle, dan rotameter.
Macam-macam jenis kecepatan alir :
a. kecepatan alir linier rata-rata dalam pipa, dinyatakan dalam satuan panjang linier setiap satuan waktu.
b. Kecepatan alir volumetric (volumetric flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya volum fluida yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
c. Keceparan alir massa ( mass flow rate), kecepatan alir yang dinyatakan dalam banyaknya massa yang mengalir setiap satuan waktu.
1. Komposisi kimia. Berat atom dan berat molekul merupakan hubungan mol dengan massa bahan. Bahan campuran berisi lebih dari satu komponen, untuk itu perlu diketahui isi (atau komposisi) masing-masing komponen penyusun bahan itu. Komposisi dapat dinyatakan dalam beberapa cara, yaitu:
a. fraksi massa atau fraksi bera, Biasanya untuk komposisi bahan berbentuk cair atau padat dinyatakan dalam fraksi massa. Total fraksi massa adalah 1,00.
b. fraksi mol, Komposisi bahan dalam fase gas biasanya dinyatakan dalam fraksi mol. Total fraksi mol = 1,0.
c. konsentrasi, Konsentrasi adalah banyaknya bahan dalam campuran setiap satuan volum. Ppm = part per million = bagian per sejuta.
2. Tekanan. Hubungan tekanan yang ditunjukkan alat ukur (gauge) dengan tekanan sesungguhnya (absolute) adalah:
Tekanan absolute = tekanan gauge + tekanan atmosfer.
1 atm = 14,696 psi = 760 mmHg = 10,333 mH2O.
3. Temperatur.
Contoh :
Suatu botol bertuliskan larutan HCl teknis 28% (w/w). Tentukan dalam % mol larutan itu.
Penyelesaian:
Misal 100 g larutan HCl 28% maka:
Komponen % Berat Berat, g Mol % Mol
HCl 28 28 28/36.5=0.77 (0.77/4.77)×100%=16.14
H2O 72 72 72/18=4 (4/4.77)×100%=83.86
Total 100 100 4.77 100
Jadi larutan itu larutan HCl 16,14% (%mol).
Diagram Alir Proses
Adalah gambaran visual yang menunjukkan semua aliran bahan-bahan baik yang masuk alat maupun yang keluar, disertai data-data susunan dari campuran bahan-bahan aliran. Gambaran ini bisa bersifat kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Kualitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan yang masuk dan keluar.
Kuantitatif : menunjukkan macam-macam bahan dan kuantitasnya.
Jadi, dalam membuat diagram alir proses, harus mencantumkan data kualitatif dan kuantitatif.
Suatu unit proses dapat digambarkan dalam sebuah kotak atau simbol alat, dan garis panas yang menunjukkan arah aliran bahan. Arus dalam diagram alir harus diberi label yang menunjukkan:
1.
Variable proses yang diketahui dan
2.
Permisalan variable yang akan dicari dengan simbol variable.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus:
1.
Tulis nilai dan satuan semua variabel yang diketahui di arus dalam gambar.
Contoh:
Narasi: gas berisi 21% mol O2 dan 79% N2 pada suhu 320 oC dan 1,4 atm mengalir dengan kecepatan 400 gmol/jam.
Diagram alir :
1. Tandai dengan symbol untuk variable yang akan dicari
Contoh:
Diagram alir berfungsi sebagai papan hitung untuk menyelesaikan masalah neraca, baik neraca massa maupun neraca panas.
Untuk dapat menggambarkan proses dari suatu narasi, seseorang harus mempunyai pengetahuan tentang proses dan sifat-sifat bahan (termodinamika). Oleh karena itu mahasiswa dituntut sering membaca buku tentang proses dan laporan praktek kerja.
Beberapa cara memberi label pada arus dapat dibaca di buku Felder and Rousseau.
Contoh:
Sistem adalah bagian atau keseluruhan proses yang ditinjau, yang biasanya untuk memisahkan antara sistem dengan bagian luar sistem.
Proses adalah suatu peristiwa dimana bahan mengalami perubahan fisis atau kimia atau keduanya.
Perubahan fisis : tidak ada reaksi kimia.
Perubahan kimia : mengalami reaksi-reaksi.
Peran proses pemisahan di industri kimia:
Ditinjau secara makro, proses-proses yang terjadi secara alamiah dapat diartikan sebagai proses pencampuran yang terjadi secara spontan dan merupakan proses yang tidak dapat balik. Berarti untuk memisahkan suatu konstituen dari campurannya diperlukan suatu usaha yaitu usaha termodinamika sehingga terjadi proses berlawanan terhadap proses alam. Maka dalam operasi pemisahan campuran perlu dimasukkan sejumlah “separating
agent ” tertentu.
Separating agent yang biasa digunakan:
1. tenaga panas, seperti steam, bahan bakar. Contoh alat : distilasi, evaporasi, pengeringan, alat penukar panas dll.
2. Sejumlah massa bahan, seperti pelarut atau penjerap. Contoh alat: ekstraksi, absorbsi, adsorpsi, stipping dll.
3.
Tenaga mekanik (tekanan). Contoh alat : filtrasi, sentrifugasi, sedimentasi dll.
Metode pemisahan konstituen dari campurannya, dapat dibedakan menurut kategori:
1. Pemisahan menurut dasar operasi difusional. Pemisahan ini dipilih jika umpannya homogen. Transfer massa dan pana konstituen berlangsung secara difusi antara 2 fase atau lebih. Contoh: distilasi (flash, kontinyu, batch), absorpsi, striping, ekstraksi, adsorpsi, ion exchange dll.
2. Pemisahan secara mekanik. Pemisahan ini dilakukan untuk campuran heterogen. Contoh : decanter, sedimentasi, sentrifuge, filtrasi, screening, dll.
3. Pemisahan menggunakan reaksi kimia.
Di dalam proses dan peralatan di industri, rangkaian peralatan menyangkut kedua jenis proses itu, yaitu:
1. Unit operation (satuan operasi): unit dengan perubahan fisis atau seringkali disebut Operasi Teknik Kimia.
2. Unit processes (satuan proses): unit dengan reaksi kimia.
Unit operation meliputi:
1. transportasi fluida (perpindahan pada proses alir),
2. perpindahan panas dalam alat penukar panas ( heat exchanger),
3. separator, padat-padat : screening. Padat-cair : sedimentasi, filtrasi, Cair – gas : absorpsi, stripper, distilasi, evaporasi. Cair-cair : ekstraksi cair-cair, dekantasi, dll.
4. pencampuran
Unit Processes meliputi:
1. pembakaran bahan bakar dalam burner, furnace.
2. Reaksi kimia dalam reaktor.
3. Fermentasi.
Unsteady State: proses tidak ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable proses mengalami perubahan nilai terhadap waktu.
Steady State: proses dalam keadaan ajeg adalah proses dimana semua variable porses yang ditinjau tidak berubah terhadap waktu.
Penggolongan Proses :
1. batch : tidak ada bahan masuk atau keluar. Jadi prosesnya USS.
2. kontinyu : kecepatan arus masuk sama dengan kecepatan arus keluar, jadi prosesnya SS.
3. Semi batch atau semi kontinyu, prosesnya USS.
Beberapa fakta di biodiesel
Biodiesel is biodegradable and non-toxic. Biodiesel adalah biodegradable dan tidak beracun. 100% biodiesel is as biodegradable as sugar and less toxic than table salt. 100% biodiesel adalah sebagai biodegradable seperti gula dan kurang beracun dari garam meja. It biodegrades up-to four times faster than petroleum diesel fuel with up-to 98% biodegradation in three weeks. Hal biodegrades up-to empat kali lebih cepat daripada bahan bakar diesel minyak bumi dengan up-to 98% biodegradasi dalam tiga minggu. However, contrary to a popular misconception, it stores indefinitely in completely full, cool, dark containers. Namun, bertentangan dengan kesalahpahaman yang populer, itu toko tanpa batas waktu di benar-benar penuh, sejuk, gelap kontainer. Compared to crappy fossil fuel diesel, biodiesel has the following emissions characteristics: Dibandingkan dengan bahan bakar fosil jelek solar, biodiesel memiliki karakteristik emisi berikut:
*
100% reduction of net carbon dioxide 100% pengurangan karbon dioksida bersih
*
100% reduction of sulphur dioxide 100% pengurangan belerang dioksida
*
40-60% reduction of soot emissions 40-60% pengurangan emisi jelaga
*
10-50% reduction of carbon monoxide 10-50% pengurangan karbon monoksida
*
a reduction of all polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and specifically the reduction of the following carcinogenic PAHs: pengurangan dari semua polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) dan secara khusus pengurangan PAHs karsinogenik berikut:
*
phenanthren by 97% phenanthren oleh 97%
*
benxofloroanthen by 56% benxofloroanthen oleh 56%
*
benz-a-pyrene by 71% benz-a-pyrene oleh 71%
*
aldehydes and aromatic compounds by 13% aldehid dan senyawa aromatik oleh 13%
*
5-10% reduction of nitrous oxide depending on age and tuning of vehicle. 5-10% pengurangan nitro tergantung pada usia dan tuning kendaraan.
For every one ton of fossil fuel burnt, 3 tons of CO2 is released into the atmosphere, biodiesel only releases the CO2 that it has taken in while the plants it is made from were growing, therefore there is no negative impact on the carbon cycle. Untuk setiap satu ton bahan bakar fosil dibakar, 3 ton CO2 dilepaskan ke atmosfer, biodiesel hanya melepaskan CO2 yang telah diambil dalam sementara tanaman itu dibuat dari tumbuh, sehingga tidak ada dampak negatif pada siklus karbon.
How to build a single tank biodiesel processor Bagaimana cara membangun sebuah tangki satu prosesor biodiesel
Firstly though, we have to say that our biodiesel expert is not longer involved in SchNEWS so we are not able to offer any advice or further information on the subject further than what's here. There are websites listed at the bottom of the page which contain loads more info. Pertama walaupun, kita harus mengatakan bahwa ahli biodiesel kami tidak lagi terlibat dalam SchNEWS jadi kami tidak dapat menawarkan nasihat atau informasi lebih lanjut tentang subjek lebih jauh dari apa yang ada di sini. Ada situs web yang tercantum di bagian bawah halaman yang mengandung beban info. Please don't email us asking questions about biodiesel as we won't be able to help. Tolong jangan email kami mengajukan pertanyaan tentang biodiesel seperti yang akan kita tidak akan bisa membantu.
Equipment required Peralatan yang diperlukan
*
45 gallon drum. 45 galon drum.
*
1/2 or 3/4 Hp electric motor. 1 / 2 atau 3 / 4 Hp motor listrik.
*
Two pulleys which produce 250 rpm and a max of 750 rpm at mixer blade. Dua katrol yang menghasilkan 250 rpm dan maksimum 750 rpm pada pisau mixer.
*
A belt for the above. Sebuah sabuk untuk di atas.
*
12 inch rolled steel rod. 12 inch menggulung batang baja.
*
Two steel shelf brackets (for the blade). Dua rak baja kurung (untuk mata pisau).
*
1 1/2 inch (38mm) brass ball valve. 1 1 / 2 inci (38mm) kuningan katup bola.
*
A hinge and a spring to act as a belt tensioned. Sebuah engsel dan pegas untuk bertindak sebagai sabuk tensioned.
*
2000-watt electric water heater element. 2000-watt elemen pemanas air listrik.
*
A water heater thermostat. Sebuah termostat pemanas air.
*
1 1/2 diameter piece of steel pipe * 3-5 inches long with male threads on one end. 1 1 / 2 diameter pipa baja potongan * 3-5 inci panjang dengan benang laki-laki pada salah satu ujungnya.
*
Assorted tat: angle iron, wood, screws etc. Assorted tat: sudut besi, kayu, sekrup dll
Assembly Majelis
1. Cut a large opening (about half the top) in the top of the steel drum. Potong pembukaan besar (sekitar setengah bagian atas) di bagian atas drum besi.
2. Drill 11/2-inch hole in the bottom of the drum. 11/2-inch bor lubang di bagian bawah drum.
3. Weld the 1 1/2-diameter pipe in the hole at the bottom of the drum. Weld the 1 1/2-diameter pipa di dalam lubang di bagian bawah drum.
4. Attach the 1 1/2-inch brass ball valve to the pipe. Pasang 1 1/2-inch kuningan katup bola ke pipa. This is the drain valve. Ini adalah katup drain.
5. Drill a hole in the side of the drum at the bottom, same size as the heater element. Mengebor sebuah lubang di sisi drum di bagian bawah, sama besarnya dengan elemen pemanas.
6. Fit the heater element making sure it is not touching the side of the drum. Sesuai dengan memastikan elemen pemanas ini tidak menyentuh sisi drum.
7. Wire up the heater element. Memasang sebuah elemen pemanas.
Chemical mixer Kimia mixer
1. Attach one pulley to the rolled steel rod. Melampirkan satu katrol untuk baja gulungan batang.
2. Attach the other pulley to the spindle of the electric motor. Pasang katrol lain ke gelendong dari motor listrik.
3. Weld the propeller to the other end of the rolled steel rod (shelf brackets). Weld baling-baling ke ujung batang baja gulungan (rak kurung).
4. Attach the rod, pulley and propeller assembly to one side of the hinge. Lampirkan batang, katrol dan baling-baling perakitan untuk satu sisi engsel.
5. Weld a piece of angle iron across the top of the drum. Las sudut sepotong besi di bagian atas drum.
6. Weld the unattached side of the hinge to the angle iron so the propeller and rod assembly sits in the middle of the drum. Las yang lajang sisi ke sudut engsel besi sehingga baling-baling dan batang perakitan duduk di tengah drum. The hinge should swing the propeller and rod back and forth. Engsel harus ayunan baling-baling dan batang ke belakang dan sebagainya.
7. Mount the electric motor on the side of the drum. Mount motor listrik di sisi drum.
8. Fit the belt to the pulleys and tighten by wedging a block of wood into the hinge. Sesuai dengan sabuk ke katrol dan kencangkan dengan wedging sebuah balok kayu ke engsel.
You also need to fashion a simple wooden measuring stick with 10 litre increments. Anda juga perlu untuk membentuk suatu tongkat pengukur kayu sederhana dengan 10 liter bertahap.
Other bits and bobs Lain bit dan bobs
A hydrometer is a good piece of kit to have to measure the specific gravity of the biodiesel. Sebuah hidrometer adalah sepotong baik kit harus mengukur bobot jenis biodiesel. The specific gravity of biodiesel should be between 0.860 and 0.900, usually 0.880. Bobot harus biodiesel antara 0,860 dan 0,900, biasanya 0,880. The specific gravity of vegetable oil is 0.920 therefore the specific gravity of biodiesel should be lower than the vegetable oil used to make the biodiesel. Bobot jenis minyak nabati sehingga 0,920 bobot biodiesel harus lebih rendah daripada minyak sayur yang digunakan untuk membuat biodiesel.
How to make biodiesel Cara membuat biodiesel
Every time you make a new batch of biodiesel using old vegetable oil you have to find out the amount of reactants required to get the correct reaction, this process is know as titration. In addition to the above equipment you will also need the following equipment: Setiap kali Anda membuat batch baru biodiesel menggunakan minyak nabati lama anda harus mencari tahu jumlah reaktan diperlukan untuk mendapatkan reaksi yang benar, proses ini dikenal sebagai titrasi. Selain peralatan di atas Anda juga akan memerlukan peralatan berikut:
Petri dish Cawan Petri
20 ml beaker 20 ml beaker
1500 ml beaker 1500 ml beaker
500 ml beaker 500 ml beaker
Isopropyl alcohol Isopropil alkohol
A graduated eye dropper Sebuah lulus penetes mata
Litmus paper Kertas lakmus
Blender with a glass bowl. Blender dengan mangkuk kaca.
Methanol Metanol
Used cooking oil Digunakan minyak goreng
Sodium Hydroxide Sodium hidroksida
Titration Titrasi
Step 1 Titration: to determine the quantity of catalyst required Langkah 1 titrasi: untuk menentukan jumlah yang dibutuhkan katalis
1. Measure 1 gram of Sodium Hydroxide onto a petri dish Ukuran 1 gram Natrium Hidroksida ke cawan petri
2. Measure 1 Lt. of distilled water into a 1500 ml beaker. Ukur 1 Lt air suling menjadi 1500 ml beaker.
3. Pour the 1 gram of Sodium Hydroxide into the 1 Lt. of distilled water Tuang 1 gram Natrium Hidroksida dalam 1 Lt air suling
4. Label 'do not drink Sodium Hydroxide' Label 'tidak minum Natrium Hidroksida "
5. Measure 10 ml of isopropyl alcohol into a 20ml beaker Ukur 10 ml isopropil alkohol menjadi beaker 20ml
6. Dissolve 1ml of used vegetable oil into the isopropyl alcohol. Melarutkan 1ml bekas minyak sayur ke dalam isopropyl alkohol.
7. Label oil/alcohol. Label minyak / alkohol.
8. Use the graduated eye dropper to drop 1 millilitre of Sodium Hydroxide /water solution into the oil/alcohol solution Gunakan penetes mata lulus menjatuhkan 1 mililiter Sodium Hidroksida / larutan air ke dalam minyak / larutan alkohol
9. After 1 millilitre of Sodium Hydroxide /water solution is added check the pH Setelah 1 mililiter Sodium Hidroksida / larutan air ditambahkan memeriksa pH
10. Repeat steps 8&9 until the oil/alcohol reaches a pH of between 8&9. Ulangi langkah 8 & 9 sampai minyak / alkohol mencapai pH antara 8 & 9. The pH increase will usually occur suddenly. Usually no more than 3 millilitres of Sodium Hydroxide /water solution will need to be added. Meningkatkan pH biasanya terjadi tiba-tiba. Biasanya tidak lebih dari 3 mililiter Sodium Hidroksida / larutan air akan perlu ditambahkan.
11. Use the following equation: · the number of millilitres of the Sodium Hydroxide/water solution dropped into the oil/alcohol mixture = x · (x+3.5)=N Gunakan persamaan berikut: · jumlah mililiter dari Natrium Hidroksida / larutan air jatuh ke dalam minyak / alkohol campuran = x · (x 3,5) = N
· N= the number of grams of Sodium Hydroxide required to neutralise and react 1 Litre of used vegetable oil. · N = jumlah gram Sodium Hidroksida diperlukan untuk menetralkan dan bereaksi 1 Litre bekas minyak sayur.
· N will be between 4.5-6.5, but it can be higher if the oil has been used for a long time. · N akan menjadi antara 4,5-6,5, tetapi dapat lebih tinggi jika minyak telah digunakan untuk waktu yang lama.
Step 2. Langkah 2. Measure the reactants Mengukur reaktan
Measure the reactants in separate containers Mengukur reaktan dalam wadah terpisah
1 Litre of filtered used oil into a 1500ml beaker 1 Litre of disaring menggunakan minyak ke dalam gelas kimia 1500ml
200 ml of methanol into a 500 ml beaker 200 ml metanol ke dalam 500 ml beaker
N grams of Sodium Hydroxide onto a petri dish N gram Sodium Hidroksida ke cawan petri
Step 3. Langkah 3. Dissolve the Sodium Hydroxide into the Methanol Melarutkan Natrium Hidroksida ke Methanol
The third step is to combine the methanol with the Sodium Hydroxide to create sodium methoxide, an extremely strong base. Langkah ketiga adalah untuk menggabungkan metanol dengan Natrium Hidroksida untuk menciptakan natrium methoxide, dasar yang sangat kuat. Once the Sodium Hydroxide has been dissolved in the methanol, the sodium methoxide must be mixed with the vegetable oil straight away. Setelah Natrium Hidroksida telah larut dalam metanol, natrium methoxide harus dicampur dengan minyak sayur langsung.
· Carefully pour the methanol into the blender, any spills must be cleaned immediately with a water and vinegar solution. · Hati-hati tuangkan metanol ke dalam blender, setiap tumpahan segera harus dibersihkan dengan air dan larutan cuka.
· Carefully pour the Sodium Hydroxide into the blender · Hati-hati Natrium Hidroksida tuangkan ke dalam blender
· Replace the lid of the blender and blend on the lowest setting for 30 seconds, until the Sodium Hydroxide has dissolved. · Ganti tutup blender di pengaturan terendah selama 30 detik, hingga Hidroksida Natrium larut. Sodium methoxide has been produced and caution must be exercised Natrium methoxide telah diproduksi dan kehati-hatian harus dilakukan
Step 4. Langkah 4. Mix the reactants Mix reaktan
· Remove the lid of the blender keeping your face well away from the top of the blender · Hapus tutup blender menjaga wajah Anda jauh dari atas blender
· carefully pour the vegetable oil into the blender · Hati-hati tuangkan minyak sayur ke dalam blender
· Place the lid on the blender and blend on a medium/high setting for 15 minutes. · Tempatkan penutup di blender pada media / pengaturan tinggi selama 15 menit. If the bowl or the blender motor get over hot switch off the blender and leave until cooled down sufficiently to continue again. Jika mangkuk atau motor blender melupakan menonaktifkan panas blender dan biarkan sampai didinginkan cukup untuk melanjutkan lagi.
Step 5. Langkah 5. Allow the glycerine to settle Biarkan gliserin untuk menyelesaikan
Settling takes about 8 hours but since 75% of the separation occurs within the first hour after the reaction immediate separation will be visible. Perkenalan berlangsung sekitar 8 jam tapi karena 75% dari pemisahan terjadi dalam satu jam pertama setelah reaksi pemisahan langsung akan terlihat. Within 8 hours the glycerine will have fallen to the bottom leaving a layer on top, this is methyl esters, or more commonly referred to as biodiesel Dalam waktu 8 jam gliserin akan telah jatuh ke bawah meninggalkan suatu lapisan di atas, ini adalah metil ester, atau lebih umum disebut sebagai biodiesel
Step 6. Langkah 6. Separation Pemisahan
After blending the contents can either be transferred into a 1500ml container with a stopcock or left in the blender for at least 8 hours. Setelah campuran isi dapat ditransfer ke dalam sebuah wadah 1500ml dengan kunci pipa atau tersisa di blender selama setidaknya 8 jam.
Step 7. Langkah 7. Clean up Bersihkan
Store the leftover used vegetable oil in a dry cool place Simpan sisa minyak sayur yang digunakan di tempat yang sejuk kering
Clean all the equipment so it is ready to use again Bersihkan semua peralatan sehingga siap digunakan lagi
Expose the glycerine to air and sunlight for 1 week and then use as soap. Mengekspos gliserin udara dan sinar matahari selama 1 minggu dan kemudian digunakan sebagai sabun.
Biodiesel is biodegradable and non-toxic. Biodiesel adalah biodegradable dan tidak beracun. 100% biodiesel is as biodegradable as sugar and less toxic than table salt. 100% biodiesel adalah sebagai biodegradable seperti gula dan kurang beracun dari garam meja. It biodegrades up-to four times faster than petroleum diesel fuel with up-to 98% biodegradation in three weeks. Hal biodegrades up-to empat kali lebih cepat daripada bahan bakar diesel minyak bumi dengan up-to 98% biodegradasi dalam tiga minggu. However, contrary to a popular misconception, it stores indefinitely in completely full, cool, dark containers. Namun, bertentangan dengan kesalahpahaman yang populer, itu toko tanpa batas waktu di benar-benar penuh, sejuk, gelap kontainer. Compared to crappy fossil fuel diesel, biodiesel has the following emissions characteristics: Dibandingkan dengan bahan bakar fosil jelek solar, biodiesel memiliki karakteristik emisi berikut:
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100% reduction of net carbon dioxide 100% pengurangan karbon dioksida bersih
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100% reduction of sulphur dioxide 100% pengurangan belerang dioksida
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40-60% reduction of soot emissions 40-60% pengurangan emisi jelaga
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10-50% reduction of carbon monoxide 10-50% pengurangan karbon monoksida
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a reduction of all polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and specifically the reduction of the following carcinogenic PAHs: pengurangan dari semua polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) dan secara khusus pengurangan PAHs karsinogenik berikut:
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phenanthren by 97% phenanthren oleh 97%
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benxofloroanthen by 56% benxofloroanthen oleh 56%
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benz-a-pyrene by 71% benz-a-pyrene oleh 71%
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aldehydes and aromatic compounds by 13% aldehid dan senyawa aromatik oleh 13%
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5-10% reduction of nitrous oxide depending on age and tuning of vehicle. 5-10% pengurangan nitro tergantung pada usia dan tuning kendaraan.
For every one ton of fossil fuel burnt, 3 tons of CO2 is released into the atmosphere, biodiesel only releases the CO2 that it has taken in while the plants it is made from were growing, therefore there is no negative impact on the carbon cycle. Untuk setiap satu ton bahan bakar fosil dibakar, 3 ton CO2 dilepaskan ke atmosfer, biodiesel hanya melepaskan CO2 yang telah diambil dalam sementara tanaman itu dibuat dari tumbuh, sehingga tidak ada dampak negatif pada siklus karbon.
How to build a single tank biodiesel processor Bagaimana cara membangun sebuah tangki satu prosesor biodiesel
Firstly though, we have to say that our biodiesel expert is not longer involved in SchNEWS so we are not able to offer any advice or further information on the subject further than what's here. There are websites listed at the bottom of the page which contain loads more info. Pertama walaupun, kita harus mengatakan bahwa ahli biodiesel kami tidak lagi terlibat dalam SchNEWS jadi kami tidak dapat menawarkan nasihat atau informasi lebih lanjut tentang subjek lebih jauh dari apa yang ada di sini. Ada situs web yang tercantum di bagian bawah halaman yang mengandung beban info. Please don't email us asking questions about biodiesel as we won't be able to help. Tolong jangan email kami mengajukan pertanyaan tentang biodiesel seperti yang akan kita tidak akan bisa membantu.
Equipment required Peralatan yang diperlukan
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45 gallon drum. 45 galon drum.
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1/2 or 3/4 Hp electric motor. 1 / 2 atau 3 / 4 Hp motor listrik.
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Two pulleys which produce 250 rpm and a max of 750 rpm at mixer blade. Dua katrol yang menghasilkan 250 rpm dan maksimum 750 rpm pada pisau mixer.
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A belt for the above. Sebuah sabuk untuk di atas.
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12 inch rolled steel rod. 12 inch menggulung batang baja.
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Two steel shelf brackets (for the blade). Dua rak baja kurung (untuk mata pisau).
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1 1/2 inch (38mm) brass ball valve. 1 1 / 2 inci (38mm) kuningan katup bola.
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A hinge and a spring to act as a belt tensioned. Sebuah engsel dan pegas untuk bertindak sebagai sabuk tensioned.
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2000-watt electric water heater element. 2000-watt elemen pemanas air listrik.
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A water heater thermostat. Sebuah termostat pemanas air.
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1 1/2 diameter piece of steel pipe * 3-5 inches long with male threads on one end. 1 1 / 2 diameter pipa baja potongan * 3-5 inci panjang dengan benang laki-laki pada salah satu ujungnya.
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Assorted tat: angle iron, wood, screws etc. Assorted tat: sudut besi, kayu, sekrup dll
Assembly Majelis
1. Cut a large opening (about half the top) in the top of the steel drum. Potong pembukaan besar (sekitar setengah bagian atas) di bagian atas drum besi.
2. Drill 11/2-inch hole in the bottom of the drum. 11/2-inch bor lubang di bagian bawah drum.
3. Weld the 1 1/2-diameter pipe in the hole at the bottom of the drum. Weld the 1 1/2-diameter pipa di dalam lubang di bagian bawah drum.
4. Attach the 1 1/2-inch brass ball valve to the pipe. Pasang 1 1/2-inch kuningan katup bola ke pipa. This is the drain valve. Ini adalah katup drain.
5. Drill a hole in the side of the drum at the bottom, same size as the heater element. Mengebor sebuah lubang di sisi drum di bagian bawah, sama besarnya dengan elemen pemanas.
6. Fit the heater element making sure it is not touching the side of the drum. Sesuai dengan memastikan elemen pemanas ini tidak menyentuh sisi drum.
7. Wire up the heater element. Memasang sebuah elemen pemanas.
Chemical mixer Kimia mixer
1. Attach one pulley to the rolled steel rod. Melampirkan satu katrol untuk baja gulungan batang.
2. Attach the other pulley to the spindle of the electric motor. Pasang katrol lain ke gelendong dari motor listrik.
3. Weld the propeller to the other end of the rolled steel rod (shelf brackets). Weld baling-baling ke ujung batang baja gulungan (rak kurung).
4. Attach the rod, pulley and propeller assembly to one side of the hinge. Lampirkan batang, katrol dan baling-baling perakitan untuk satu sisi engsel.
5. Weld a piece of angle iron across the top of the drum. Las sudut sepotong besi di bagian atas drum.
6. Weld the unattached side of the hinge to the angle iron so the propeller and rod assembly sits in the middle of the drum. Las yang lajang sisi ke sudut engsel besi sehingga baling-baling dan batang perakitan duduk di tengah drum. The hinge should swing the propeller and rod back and forth. Engsel harus ayunan baling-baling dan batang ke belakang dan sebagainya.
7. Mount the electric motor on the side of the drum. Mount motor listrik di sisi drum.
8. Fit the belt to the pulleys and tighten by wedging a block of wood into the hinge. Sesuai dengan sabuk ke katrol dan kencangkan dengan wedging sebuah balok kayu ke engsel.
You also need to fashion a simple wooden measuring stick with 10 litre increments. Anda juga perlu untuk membentuk suatu tongkat pengukur kayu sederhana dengan 10 liter bertahap.
Other bits and bobs Lain bit dan bobs
A hydrometer is a good piece of kit to have to measure the specific gravity of the biodiesel. Sebuah hidrometer adalah sepotong baik kit harus mengukur bobot jenis biodiesel. The specific gravity of biodiesel should be between 0.860 and 0.900, usually 0.880. Bobot harus biodiesel antara 0,860 dan 0,900, biasanya 0,880. The specific gravity of vegetable oil is 0.920 therefore the specific gravity of biodiesel should be lower than the vegetable oil used to make the biodiesel. Bobot jenis minyak nabati sehingga 0,920 bobot biodiesel harus lebih rendah daripada minyak sayur yang digunakan untuk membuat biodiesel.
How to make biodiesel Cara membuat biodiesel
Every time you make a new batch of biodiesel using old vegetable oil you have to find out the amount of reactants required to get the correct reaction, this process is know as titration. In addition to the above equipment you will also need the following equipment: Setiap kali Anda membuat batch baru biodiesel menggunakan minyak nabati lama anda harus mencari tahu jumlah reaktan diperlukan untuk mendapatkan reaksi yang benar, proses ini dikenal sebagai titrasi. Selain peralatan di atas Anda juga akan memerlukan peralatan berikut:
Petri dish Cawan Petri
20 ml beaker 20 ml beaker
1500 ml beaker 1500 ml beaker
500 ml beaker 500 ml beaker
Isopropyl alcohol Isopropil alkohol
A graduated eye dropper Sebuah lulus penetes mata
Litmus paper Kertas lakmus
Blender with a glass bowl. Blender dengan mangkuk kaca.
Methanol Metanol
Used cooking oil Digunakan minyak goreng
Sodium Hydroxide Sodium hidroksida
Titration Titrasi
Step 1 Titration: to determine the quantity of catalyst required Langkah 1 titrasi: untuk menentukan jumlah yang dibutuhkan katalis
1. Measure 1 gram of Sodium Hydroxide onto a petri dish Ukuran 1 gram Natrium Hidroksida ke cawan petri
2. Measure 1 Lt. of distilled water into a 1500 ml beaker. Ukur 1 Lt air suling menjadi 1500 ml beaker.
3. Pour the 1 gram of Sodium Hydroxide into the 1 Lt. of distilled water Tuang 1 gram Natrium Hidroksida dalam 1 Lt air suling
4. Label 'do not drink Sodium Hydroxide' Label 'tidak minum Natrium Hidroksida "
5. Measure 10 ml of isopropyl alcohol into a 20ml beaker Ukur 10 ml isopropil alkohol menjadi beaker 20ml
6. Dissolve 1ml of used vegetable oil into the isopropyl alcohol. Melarutkan 1ml bekas minyak sayur ke dalam isopropyl alkohol.
7. Label oil/alcohol. Label minyak / alkohol.
8. Use the graduated eye dropper to drop 1 millilitre of Sodium Hydroxide /water solution into the oil/alcohol solution Gunakan penetes mata lulus menjatuhkan 1 mililiter Sodium Hidroksida / larutan air ke dalam minyak / larutan alkohol
9. After 1 millilitre of Sodium Hydroxide /water solution is added check the pH Setelah 1 mililiter Sodium Hidroksida / larutan air ditambahkan memeriksa pH
10. Repeat steps 8&9 until the oil/alcohol reaches a pH of between 8&9. Ulangi langkah 8 & 9 sampai minyak / alkohol mencapai pH antara 8 & 9. The pH increase will usually occur suddenly. Usually no more than 3 millilitres of Sodium Hydroxide /water solution will need to be added. Meningkatkan pH biasanya terjadi tiba-tiba. Biasanya tidak lebih dari 3 mililiter Sodium Hidroksida / larutan air akan perlu ditambahkan.
11. Use the following equation: · the number of millilitres of the Sodium Hydroxide/water solution dropped into the oil/alcohol mixture = x · (x+3.5)=N Gunakan persamaan berikut: · jumlah mililiter dari Natrium Hidroksida / larutan air jatuh ke dalam minyak / alkohol campuran = x · (x 3,5) = N
· N= the number of grams of Sodium Hydroxide required to neutralise and react 1 Litre of used vegetable oil. · N = jumlah gram Sodium Hidroksida diperlukan untuk menetralkan dan bereaksi 1 Litre bekas minyak sayur.
· N will be between 4.5-6.5, but it can be higher if the oil has been used for a long time. · N akan menjadi antara 4,5-6,5, tetapi dapat lebih tinggi jika minyak telah digunakan untuk waktu yang lama.
Step 2. Langkah 2. Measure the reactants Mengukur reaktan
Measure the reactants in separate containers Mengukur reaktan dalam wadah terpisah
1 Litre of filtered used oil into a 1500ml beaker 1 Litre of disaring menggunakan minyak ke dalam gelas kimia 1500ml
200 ml of methanol into a 500 ml beaker 200 ml metanol ke dalam 500 ml beaker
N grams of Sodium Hydroxide onto a petri dish N gram Sodium Hidroksida ke cawan petri
Step 3. Langkah 3. Dissolve the Sodium Hydroxide into the Methanol Melarutkan Natrium Hidroksida ke Methanol
The third step is to combine the methanol with the Sodium Hydroxide to create sodium methoxide, an extremely strong base. Langkah ketiga adalah untuk menggabungkan metanol dengan Natrium Hidroksida untuk menciptakan natrium methoxide, dasar yang sangat kuat. Once the Sodium Hydroxide has been dissolved in the methanol, the sodium methoxide must be mixed with the vegetable oil straight away. Setelah Natrium Hidroksida telah larut dalam metanol, natrium methoxide harus dicampur dengan minyak sayur langsung.
· Carefully pour the methanol into the blender, any spills must be cleaned immediately with a water and vinegar solution. · Hati-hati tuangkan metanol ke dalam blender, setiap tumpahan segera harus dibersihkan dengan air dan larutan cuka.
· Carefully pour the Sodium Hydroxide into the blender · Hati-hati Natrium Hidroksida tuangkan ke dalam blender
· Replace the lid of the blender and blend on the lowest setting for 30 seconds, until the Sodium Hydroxide has dissolved. · Ganti tutup blender di pengaturan terendah selama 30 detik, hingga Hidroksida Natrium larut. Sodium methoxide has been produced and caution must be exercised Natrium methoxide telah diproduksi dan kehati-hatian harus dilakukan
Step 4. Langkah 4. Mix the reactants Mix reaktan
· Remove the lid of the blender keeping your face well away from the top of the blender · Hapus tutup blender menjaga wajah Anda jauh dari atas blender
· carefully pour the vegetable oil into the blender · Hati-hati tuangkan minyak sayur ke dalam blender
· Place the lid on the blender and blend on a medium/high setting for 15 minutes. · Tempatkan penutup di blender pada media / pengaturan tinggi selama 15 menit. If the bowl or the blender motor get over hot switch off the blender and leave until cooled down sufficiently to continue again. Jika mangkuk atau motor blender melupakan menonaktifkan panas blender dan biarkan sampai didinginkan cukup untuk melanjutkan lagi.
Step 5. Langkah 5. Allow the glycerine to settle Biarkan gliserin untuk menyelesaikan
Settling takes about 8 hours but since 75% of the separation occurs within the first hour after the reaction immediate separation will be visible. Perkenalan berlangsung sekitar 8 jam tapi karena 75% dari pemisahan terjadi dalam satu jam pertama setelah reaksi pemisahan langsung akan terlihat. Within 8 hours the glycerine will have fallen to the bottom leaving a layer on top, this is methyl esters, or more commonly referred to as biodiesel Dalam waktu 8 jam gliserin akan telah jatuh ke bawah meninggalkan suatu lapisan di atas, ini adalah metil ester, atau lebih umum disebut sebagai biodiesel
Step 6. Langkah 6. Separation Pemisahan
After blending the contents can either be transferred into a 1500ml container with a stopcock or left in the blender for at least 8 hours. Setelah campuran isi dapat ditransfer ke dalam sebuah wadah 1500ml dengan kunci pipa atau tersisa di blender selama setidaknya 8 jam.
Step 7. Langkah 7. Clean up Bersihkan
Store the leftover used vegetable oil in a dry cool place Simpan sisa minyak sayur yang digunakan di tempat yang sejuk kering
Clean all the equipment so it is ready to use again Bersihkan semua peralatan sehingga siap digunakan lagi
Expose the glycerine to air and sunlight for 1 week and then use as soap. Mengekspos gliserin udara dan sinar matahari selama 1 minggu dan kemudian digunakan sebagai sabun.
Jumat, 22 Januari 2010
KATALIS pada pembuatan BIODISEL dari jelantah
Katalis:bahan kimia yg berfungsi mempercepat suatu reaksi kimia.Pada proses esterifikasi,asam akan mempercepat reaksi dg cara mendonorkan elektron ke grup alkoxy shg gugus ini lebih reaktif.Sebaliknya,basa pada transesterifikasi berfungsi sbh katalis dg cara menarik elektron dari alkohol shg gugus mjd reaktif.
KEUNTUNGAN BIODISEL dari MINYAK JELANTAH
_diperoleh FAME/RFOME/recycled frying oil methyl esters yg murah shg bhan bkar nabati ini murah dan ramah lingkungan.
_mencegah trjadina poluli lingkungan cair & tanah dg tdk adanya pembuangan minyak bekas goreng ke sembarang tempat
_mengurangi bahan karsinogenik yg beredar dimasyarakat,penggunaan minyak goreng yg berulang2(terdapat kurang lbh 400 snyawa kimia didalamnya) akan mengoksidasi asam lemak tdk jenuh membentuk gugus peroksida n mommer siklik.senyawa ini berpotensi memicu penyakit kanker kolon,pembesaran hati,ginjal n gangguan jantung.
_mencegah trjadina poluli lingkungan cair & tanah dg tdk adanya pembuangan minyak bekas goreng ke sembarang tempat
_mengurangi bahan karsinogenik yg beredar dimasyarakat,penggunaan minyak goreng yg berulang2(terdapat kurang lbh 400 snyawa kimia didalamnya) akan mengoksidasi asam lemak tdk jenuh membentuk gugus peroksida n mommer siklik.senyawa ini berpotensi memicu penyakit kanker kolon,pembesaran hati,ginjal n gangguan jantung.
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